Current diarchies Andorra Andorra is a parliamentary co-
principality. Its princes are (
ex officio) the
French president and the
bishop of Urgell in
Catalonia,
Spain. Since 1962, the French president has been
elected by
universal suffrage within
France. The bishop of the diocese of Urgell is appointed by the
Roman Catholic pope.
Eswatini The monarchy of
Eswatini is traditionally headed by a male and a female monarch, the
Ngwenyama (King, ) and the
Ndlovukati (, usually the mother of the reigning iNgwenyama) respectively. In practice, the Ngwenyama effectively holds power as the executive and administrative head of state; the Ndlovukati's role is spiritual and more symbolic but may act as
queen regent in the absence of a king.
Nicaragua In 2025, during the presidency of
Daniel Ortega, the
National Assembly approved multiple amendments to the
Constitution of Nicaragua that included proclaiming Ortega and his wife, Vice President
Rosario Murillo, as co-presidents.
Northern Ireland Under the terms of the 1998
Good Friday Agreement intended to end the
conflict in
Northern Ireland, the
First Minister and
deputy First Minister serve as joint heads of the area's
executive. Both positions exercise identical executive powers; however they are not
heads of state.
San Marino The
captains regent () of
San Marino are elected every six months by the Sammarinese parliament, the
Grand and General Council. They serve as joint heads of state, and are normally chosen from opposing parties.
Historical diarchies Sparta The office of king in
ancient Sparta was divided between two kings from separate dynasties, each holding a
veto over the other's actions. However, the Spartan kings' powers and duties consisted mainly of leading the
Spartan army on campaign (during which only one king would usually lead a given force) and certain religious functions, as well as having ex-officio seats in the
Gerousia (Senate). Actual day-to-day public administration in Sparta was managed by the
ephors.
Roman Republic Following the
overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the Romans established an
oligarchic Roman Republic which divided
supreme executive power () between two
consuls, both elected each year and each holding a
veto over the other's actions. The historical
duumviri were not rulers but magistrates, performing various judicial, religious, or public functions.
Kartli According to the
Conversion of Kartli,
Leonti Mroveli,
Vakhushti Bagrationi,
Teimuraz Bagrationi and
Pavle Ingorokva, there existed a dual power in
Kartli at the time of the kings mentioned below: • Bartom II and Kʽartʽam • Pʽarsman I and Kaos
Japan During
Japan's
shogunate, the
emperor was notionally a supreme spiritual and temporal lord who delegated authority for joint rule to the
shōgun. In practice, the
shōguns power was so complete that they are usually considered
de facto monarchs rather than
viceroys or corulers.
Medieval Europe A
paréage was a
feudal treaty recognizing the "
equal footing" () of two sovereigns over a territory. The most famous such arrangement was the
1278 treaty that established modern
Andorra. Others include
Maastricht, which was shared by the
Duke of Brabant and the
Prince-Bishop of Liège. After the establishment of the
Dutch Republic, it became a
condominium of Liège and the United Provinces, which administered it through the
States General of the Netherlands until 1794.
Tibet Between 1642 and 1751, political power in
Tibet was shared between the
5th,
6th, and
7th Dalai Lamas who headed the realm's Buddhist
state religion and various secular rulers known as desis. The growing power of the desis caused the 7th Dalai Lama to abolish the post and replace it with a council known as the
Kashag, permitting him to consolidate his authority over the realm. A similar system arose in
Bhutan, with the
Wangchuck governor (
penlop) of
Trongsa becoming the
Druk Desi and
Druk Gyalpo in 1907. In contrast to Tibet, the dynasty eventually consolidated its power and now rules as the kings of Bhutan.
Russia From 1619 to 1633, Tsar
Michael of Russia ruled alongside his father,
Patriarch Filaret of Moscow. Both were addressed as "" (; "Great Sovereign"), held court together, and when they did not the ceremony was the same. While both were equal in theory, in practice Patriarch Filaret ruled, with Michael supporting whatever his father ordered. Between the
February Revolution in March 1917 and the
October Revolution in November, political power in Russia was divided between the
Russian Provisional Government and the
Petrograd Soviet, a condition described by
Vladimir Lenin as "
dual power". He elaborated the situation into a dual-power doctrine, whereby
communists collaborated with and then supplanted existing bourgeois forms of government.
England, Scotland and Ireland Although the Kingdoms of
England,
Scotland and
Ireland were monarchies, they became
de facto diarchies in
personal union during the co-rule of
William II and III and
Mary II. After the
Glorious Revolution deposed
James VII and II, his kingships were succeeded in
1689 by his daughter Mary and his son-in-law and nephew William, who jointly ruled England, Scotland and Ireland until Mary died in 1694, succeeded by William as the sole monarch.
Canada The
Province of Canada, which existed from 1841 to 1867, was governed by two
joint premiers. Usually, one was chosen from the English-speaking
Canada West and the other one from the French-speaking
Canada East.
India Named as the
India Secretary for the
Lloyd George ministry,
Edwin Samuel Montagu made the "
Grand Declaration" on 20 August 1917 that British policy would henceforth be "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions". Montagu and
Viscount Chelmsford, the
Governor-General of India, then made an extensive tour of the subcontinent in 1917 and 1918. The
Montague–Chelmsford Report's recommendations formed the basis for the
Government of India Act 1919 that established "diarchy" in
British India. Under that act, the executive was to be headed by a governor appointed by the Secretary of State, who could consult the Governor General. The governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that the provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers whereas reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor General and his executive council. The members of the Executive Council were to be appointed by the Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters that he was to administer at his own discretion, in which he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to the vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes, the Governor being able to break ties.
Western Samoa The 1960 constitution of Western Samoa declared paramount chiefs
Malietoa Tanumafili II and
Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole as joint
heads of state when Western Samoa gained independence in 1962. This arrangement ended when Tupua Tamasese died the following year, succeeded by Malietoa as the sole head of state.
Bolivia Following a
coup d'état in 1964, former
Vice President René Barrientos rose to power as president of the military junta. The following year, faced with discontent from loyalists of General
Alfredo Ovando Candía, Barrientos promulgated the co-presidency between himself and Ovando Candía. The pair ruled as dual presidents until 1966 when Barrientos resigned in order to run in that year's
general election.
Israel After the
2019–2021 Israeli political crisis, Israel's
Basic Law: The Government underwent a major change. A system of two prime ministers, appointed at the same time by the
Knesset, was established. According to the new method, there was an
Alternate Prime Minister of Israel in addition to the standard
Prime Minister of Israel. After a half of the government's term, the two prime ministers would change positions as part of a
rotation government. During the term, the government's roles and duties were divided between the two prime ministers, each one of them entitled to remove ministers without the other's interference. However, this system did not survive even until the first planned rotation and was abolished again after the formation of the
thirty-seventh government of Israel at the end of 2022. ==Informal use==