Nanking Safety Zone

Following the commencement of the Battle of Songhu on August 15, 1937, Japanese aircraft systematically and indiscriminately bombarded the city of Nanjing. In this context, the ambassadors of Germany, UK, France, Italy, and the United States contacted the U.S. Department of State on August 29, urging it to exert pressure on Japan to cease indiscriminate bombing. In response, the Japanese Counselor in the United States conveyed "deep regret" but contended that the bombing of Nanjing was justified due to the presence of numerous Chinese military strongholds both within and outside the city walls of Nanjing. Within and beyond the city walls, several Chinese military fortifications and regiments exist; nevertheless, the Japanese bombing campaigns also encompass civilian infrastructure, including residential districts, educational institutions, hospitals, commercial establishments, factories, transportation hubs, docks, and other facilities. The Japanese bombing resulted in a significant number of inhabitants becoming casualties, and on September 22, the Japanese army conducted an aerial assault on the Xiaguan Refugee Shelter () in Nanking, resulting in the immediate deaths of hundreds of refugees, despite repeated warnings from the U.S. side. On September 27, the League of Nations received a communication from Japan's foreign affairs administrator to the British, stating that there would be no further bombing of Nanking. The subsequent day, the League of Nations passed a resolution denouncing Japan's aerial assault on Nanking. Following the fall of Shanghai on November 16, 1937, to mitigate the suffering of Nanjing's populace due to the war and to emulate the refugee zone established in southern Shanghai, the chairman of the board of trustees of Jinling University, Hang Liwu, proposed the creation of a safety zone in Nanjing. The subsequent day, W. P. Mills, Miner Searle Bates, and Lewis Smythe, professors at JLL, visited the private residence of Peck, a staff member of the U.S. Embassy in Nanjing, to deliberate the creation of a wartime safety zone in Nanjing to safeguard ordinary civilians following the withdrawal of the Chinese government. Minnie Vautrin, an instructor at the Ginling College, was designated to convey the proposal to the Japanese. In this conference, the men sought to assign the Chinese military control over the safe zone, so circumventing unwanted diplomatic entanglements for the West. That evening, Parker communicated the suggestion for a safe zone to Sun Fo and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the National Government, Zhang Qun; however, Zhang Qun deemed it premature to present the plan at that moment. To effectively establish the safe zone, Hang Liwu, along with Bates and Mills, engaged in extensive communication with Chinese officials and prominent figures from Europe and America, securing the backing of ambassadors from multiple Western nations. Ultimately, Hang Liwu and approximately 20 individuals from the United States, Britain, Germany, and Denmark resolved to establish an international aid organization dedicated to the protection of refugees in Nanking, motivated by humanitarian principles, and designated it as the "International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone". ==Establishment==

On November 20, 1937, the Nationalist Government of Nanjing officially announced the relocation of the capital, prompting government officials to depart from Nanjing sequentially. On the afternoon of November 22, the International Committee for the Safe Zone convened, and John S.C. Rabe was appointed as the Chairman of the Committee. This signified the official creation of the Nanking Safety Zone and the International Committee of the Safety Zone. On November 24, the International Committee of the Nanking Safety Zone transmitted a cable via the Japanese Ambassador to the U.S. Consul General in Shanghai, proposing the creation of a safety zone in Nanking to safeguard the refugees. The telegram underscored the obligation of the Safety Zone to secure specific assurances from the Chinese government, to dismantle all planned military installations, to refrain from deploying armed personnel beyond civilian police, and to forbid all military factions from entering the Safety Zone. On the November 25 and 29, the International Committee summoned the Japanese Ambassador and military authorities in Shanghai, anticipating their amicable acknowledgment of the Safety Zone. The Japanese official response was sluggish; however, the Japanese media, including the Nichi-Japan Shimbun, asserted that the creation of the Safety Zone impeded the Japanese assault on Nanking, while the Yomiuri Shimbun contended that the decision rested not with the Japanese government, but with the Japanese military. On November 26, Chiang Kai-shek consented to the creation of the zone, and on November 29, the mayor of Nanjing, Ma Chaojun, publicly declared at a regular meeting of the Sino-British Cultural Association that the International Committee for the Nanjing Safe Zone had been officially constituted. Subsequently, Zhang Qun relocated to the German Embassy, which designated the International Committee as the office premises. On December 1, the jurisdiction of the safe zone was officially transferred from the Nanjing Municipal Government to the International Committee, accompanied by 10,000 sacks of flour, 20,000 sacks of rice, some salt, and 100,000 U.S. dollars in cash; however, due to transportation issues, these supplies had only arrived by December 7. 9,067 bags of rice, 1,000 bags of flour, 350 bags of salt, together with a total cash amount of 120,000 U.S. dollars before and after. Upon its inception, the safe zone was designed in the likeness of the Nanshi Refugee Zone in Shanghai, featuring a red cross within a black circle on a white backdrop as its insignia. == Ranges ==

in 1937 The preliminary definition of the safety zone is as follows: to the east, from Xinjiekou at Zhongshan Road to the junction of Zhongshan Road and Zhongshan Road North, then northwest along Zhongshan Road North to the boundary of Shansi Road Plaza; to the north, from Shansi Road Plaza to Xikang Road; to the west, from the southern side of Xikang Road to the intersection of Han Road, then southeast to the line intersecting Shanghai Road and Hanzhong Road; and to the south, the segment of Hanzhong Road from the intersection of Shanghai Road to Xinjiekou, encompassing a total area of 3.86 square kilometers. The objective is to encompass colleges, universities, hospitals, and residential districts simultaneously, while circumventing the city's military installations. On December 8, to safeguard cultural treasures, Hang Liwu first planned to relocate the cultural artifacts from the Chaotian Palace and its vicinity into the security zone; however, this action was ultimately halted due to the notification of the security zone's boundaries to the Japanese authorities. The area is further from the Nanjing defense war zone, has a greater number of foreign embassies, and is hence less vulnerable to Japanese aerial bombardment. Furthermore, the "New Residential Area" was constructed in the 1920s and 1930s primarily for the Nationalist government to establish upscale villas for dignitaries. Following the fall of Shanghai, most residences in this area were vacated, along with numerous colleges and universities, including the Nanjing Union Theological Seminary and the Ginling College, which had the capacity to house a greater number of refugees. As of December 17, the total refugee count in the safe zone was approximately 50,000, which rose to nearly 70,000 by the December 21. The total number of shelters in the Zone managed by the International Committee was 26. Minor inconsistencies exist in the literature, although the figure remains reasonably stable, as documented by authors including Wetterling, Fitch, and others, who have noted 25 shelters. Moreover, some shelters were established by the refugees themselves and several other organizations. The shelters lacked a cohesive management system, with some functioning as temporary refuges for refugees, devoid of a comprehensive leadership framework, and there was no standardized process for the establishment or dissolution of these shelters. The directors and assistants overseeing the numerous shelters are either esteemed citizens of the security zone or competent refugees with a degree of prestige. Their capacity to execute their responsibilities ranges from individuals committed to their tasks to those who extort refugees; yet, they generally manage to fulfill their roles. Directors and assistants are frequently replaced owing to incompetence and internal discord. The International Committee dispatched personnel to evaluate these shelters and provided inspection materials for future use. == Governing Body ==

|right Upon the establishment of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, a secretariat was formed as a specialized entity to gather information from the involved parties, prepare pertinent reports, and facilitate communication with them. The principal entity of the International Committee was the Board of Directors, comprising John Rabe, Chairman; Lewis S. C. Smythe, Secretary; and the Englishmen P.H. Munro-Fanre of P.P. Shields, Ivor Mackay of Swire & Sons, and J. Lean of Asia Kerosene Company. (The four British members were part of the Committee at its inception but departed prior to the fall of Nanking on December 12, and they were also members of the International Committee.) American John Magee as an Anglican priest, served as the general inspector overseeing the operations of various sub-committees and the Refugee Shelter. Additionally, J.V. Pickering and J.V. Baker were associated with Mobil Oil Company; Bedes, Mills, C.S. Trimmer were physicians at ); Charles Riggs was an expatriate educator at the University of Jinling; J.M. Hanson (Danish, Texas Kerosene Company); G. Schnltze-Pantin (German, Hing Ming Trading Company); Ednard Sperling of Shanghai Insurance Company. Additionally, present were George Fitcher, Deputy Director-General and Deputy Director of the Safety Zone, Hang Liwu, Deputy Director-General and Co-Director General representing the Chinese side (his appointment concluded on November 28, 1937; Hang Liwu traveled to Hankou with the Palace artifacts from the Chaotian Palace in early December and could not return to Nanjing until the subsequent dissolution of the Safety Zone), the director of the Chinese Secretariat, Tang Zhongmu, and staff member Chen Wenwen, among others. They were located at the Zhangqun Mansion in 5 Ninghai Road. Moreover, certain staff members were engaged on an ad hoc basis while safeguarding refugees in the Safety Zone, and some of these refugees provided testimonies regarding Japanese crimes. The International Committee was established with four subcommittees: the Food, Housing, Health, and Transport Committees. The Transportation Committee was integrated into the Food Committee shortly after its inception. The Housing Committee was the largest subcommittee, largely tasked with the allocation and upkeep of homes within the Safety Zone. The committee was led by Wang Ding, with Charles Riggs serving as deputy director, and comprised other members from China: Qi Zhaocang, Zhang Yongsheng, Zhu Shuchang, Wang Mingde, and Wang Youcheng. The committee partitioned the housing within the security zone into eight communities, with a new district to be created shortly thereafter. Each district maintained an office to address particular issues. The district heads, all of whom were Chinese, were: District 1, Wang Mingde; District 2, Jiang Zhengyun; District 3, Qi Zhaichang; District 4, Wang Xinglong (captured and killed by the Japanese army on December 28, 1937); District 5, Chen Feiran; District 6, Wu Guoging; District 7, Zhang Yongsheng; District 8, Jin Hanzhang; and District 9, Yang Guanpin. The primary functions of the Food Committee were the delivery and distribution of food. The director was Han Xianglin, the deputy director was Hubert L. Thorne, and the members were Sun Yaosan, Zhu Jing, Cai Chaosong, Chao Laowu, Xiao, Meng, and Tao Xisan from the Red Swastika Society. The impoverished refugees in the shelter received rice and food at no cost, whilst those who could afford it were required to pay a little fee. The shelter's food supply was consequently maintained at a minimum level. The responsibilities of the Sanitation Committee included ensuring the cleanliness of the shelters and restrooms, addressing the health issues of the refugees within the shelters, and subsequently sanitizing the water sources and streets where bodies were present. Shen Yushu was the chairperson of the committee, while Dr. Drimmer from the Gulou Hospital held the position of vice-chairperson. The committee's sanitation personnel were originally designated as 400; however, following the Japanese invasion of Nanjing, several workers were indiscriminately executed. On December 15, 1937, six workers were shot in the street by Japanese soldiers, and another sustained severe injuries, resulting in the neglect of sanitation outside the refugee shelter. Special sanitation officers were assigned to each neighborhood of the Housing Committee. Magee and associates founded the Nanking Chapter of the International Red Cross at the headquarters of the International Committee, appointing Magee as president, Li Junan and Walter Lowe as vice-presidents, Ernest Foster as secretary-general, and including Christian Kroeger as treasurer, along with Mrs. Paul Dewitt Twinem, Minnie Weitling, Robert Wilson, Fowler, Drimmer, James Mcgallun, Bedes, John Rabe, Lewis Smythe, Mills, Cola Podshivoloff, and Shen Yushu. The chapter submitted letters to the International Red Cross in Shanghai and the Red Cross in China for acknowledgment. The chapter undertook responsibilities for treating injured soldiers and refugees, ensuring sanitary conditions, and offering assistance to refugees within the Safety Zone. The Nanjing Branch of the World Red Swastika Society managed the distribution of food and clothing, as well as the collection of corpses within the Safety Zone; however, Japanese forces appropriated the Society's trucks, along with the coffins and personnel designated for corpse collection. During the initial phase of the zone's establishment, the Nanjing city government sent 450 uniformed police personnel to uphold law and order within the area. A voluntary police force composed of immigrants and local citizens existed, typically donning merely armbands instead of uniforms. On December 17, 1937, 50 uniformed policemen and 45 volunteer policemen were specifically targeted and captured by the Japanese Army. The subsequent day, an additional 40 uniformed police were apprehended by the Japanese. The Japanese appropriated firefighting resources from the city of Nanking, resulting in uncontrollable fires erupting in all directions within and outside the security zone. ==Termination==

As a significant influx of refugees sought asylum in the Safety Zone, the puppet regime imposed by the Japanese army became nearly defunct. Concurrently, the International Committee for the Safety Zone's promotion of Western values considerably obstructed the Japanese army's enslavement policies. Consequently, the Japanese secret service dispatched an official responsible for the Safety Zone, along with a representative from the so-called Nanking Autonomous Committee, to inform the leaders of the refugee shelters of the mandate for the evacuation of all refugees on January 28, 1938. Two days later, the Japanese authorities insisted that all refugees return to their former residences by February 4, threatening to forcibly evict them from the shelters if they failed to comply, while simultaneously prohibiting any commercial activities within the safety zone. Under duress, the refugees departed the Zone individually, resulting in a gradual diminishment of its importance. Currently, fifty percent of the Chinese personnel in the Safety Zone choose to go from Nanjing following a slight improvement in conditions, since their families had already relocated to safer areas, resulting in a progressive insufficiency of manpower in the Safety Zone. John Rabe and his International Committee were credited with saving 200,000–250,000 lives despite the ongoing massacre. After George Ashmore Fitch departed, Hubert Lafayette Sone was elected Administrative Director of the Nanking International Relief Committee. On February 18, 1938, the International Committee of the Safety Zone was compelled to restructure as the International Relief Committee of Nanjing. This decision was communicated to the U.S., British, and German embassies in China. Subsequently, the management of the Safety Zone was progressively assumed by the puppet institutions established by the Japanese army, thereby officially concluding the Safety Zone, with the final refugee shelters closing in June of that year. By late 1939 and early 1940, the operations of the Relief Committee were essentially concluded, and in August 1940, the Nanking International Relief Committee was formally disbanded. ==Legacy==

On February 23, 1938, Rabe departed from Nanjing to return to Germany. During this journey, he revealed all of his and Fitch's diaries regarding the Nanking Massacre, which were subsequently compiled and published by Harold John Timperley and Hsu Shu-hsi. Following the investigation, a substantial quantity of archival data regarding Chinese personnel was lost, and many eyewitnesses did not document their accounts during their lifetimes, leading to an inability to verify the identities and specific actions of numerous Chinese staff members. As of 2018, nine immovable cultural relics associated with the Nanjing Safety Zone exist, situated at the Suiyuan Campus of Nanjing Normal University (formerly a refugee shelter for the Ginling College), the Gulou Campus of Nanjing University (formerly a refugee shelter for Jinling University), Rabe's Old Residence (formerly a refugee shelter for the Siemens Foreign Bank), Hankou Road Elementary School, the Jiangsu Deliberation Garden (formerly the Overseas Chinese Club), Jinling High School (formerly Jinling University High School and its refugee shelter), 140 Hanzhong Road (formerly the Jinling Theological Seminary Refugee Shelter), the entrance of the former Ministry of Justice of the National Government, and 101 Zhongshan North Road (formerly the Supreme Court of the National Government). Not all areas are designated with signage regarding the Nanjing Safety Zone, and the degree of protection for cultural artifacts varies slightly. ==See also==