When
Valerian was proclaimed emperor in September 253, he asked the
Senate to ratify the elevation of Gallienus to
Augustus. He was also designated
consul ordinarius for 254. As
Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother
Lucius Verus had done a century earlier, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire. Valerian left for the East to stem the Persian threat, and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube. Division of the empire had become necessary due to its sheer size and the numerous threats it faced, and it facilitated negotiations with enemies who demanded to communicate directly with the emperor.
Early reign Gallienus spent most of his time in the provinces of the Rhine area (
Germania Inferior,
Germania Superior,
Raetia, and
Noricum), though he almost certainly visited the
Danube area and
Illyricum in the years from 253 to 258. According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in preventing invaders from attacking the German provinces and Gaul, despite the weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against
Aemilianus in 253. According to numismatic evidence, he seems to have won many victories there, and a victory in
Roman Dacia might also be dated to that period. Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes success to him at this time. In 255 or 257, Gallienus was made consul again, suggesting that he briefly visited Rome on those occasions, although no record survives. During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256), he proclaimed his elder son
Valerian II Caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I; the boy probably joined Gallienus on campaign at that time, and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257, he remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority.
Revolts and usurpers Ingenuus revolt of Gallienus marked: GALLIENVS AVG.Sometime between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), while Valerian was distracted with the ongoing invasion of
Shapur I in the East, and Gallienus was preoccupied with his problems in the West,
Ingenuus, governor of at least one of the Pannonian provinces, took advantage and declared himself emperor. Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258. Ingenuus may have been responsible for Valerian II's death. Alternatively, the defeat and capture of
Valerian at the
battle of Edessa may have been the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus,
Regalian, and
Postumus. In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed. He left his son
Saloninus as Caesar at
Cologne, under the supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus. He then hastily crossed the
Balkans, taking with him the new cavalry corps (
comitatus) under the command of
Aureolus and defeated Ingenuus at
Mursa or
Sirmium. Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium.
Alemanni invasion A major invasion by the
Alemanni and other Germanic tribes occurred between 258 and 260 (it is hard to fix the precise date of these events), probably due to the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus.
Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading
Gaul, some reaching as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern
Tarragona). The Alemanni invaded, probably through
Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube), likely followed by the
Juthungi. After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern
France and
Switzerland), they entered Italy, the first invasion of the Italian peninsula, aside from its most remote northern regions, since
Hannibal 500 years before. When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate, consisting of local troops (probably praetorian guards) and the strongest of the civilian population. On their retreat through northern Italy, they were intercepted and defeated in the
battle of Mediolanum (near present-day
Milan) by Gallienus's army, which had advanced from Gaul, or from the Balkans after dealing with the Franks. The battle of Mediolanum was decisive, and the Alemanni did not bother the empire for the next ten years. The Juthungi managed to cross the Alps with their valuables and captives from Italy. A historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to jealousy and suspicion by Gallienus, thus contributing to his exclusion of senators from military commands.
Regalian's revolt of Regalian: IMP. C. P. C. REGALIANVS P. F. AVG. Around the same time,
Regalian, who held some command in the Balkans, was proclaimed emperor. The reasons for this are unclear, and the
Historia Augusta (almost the sole resource for these events) does not provide a credible story. It is possible the seizure can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, who felt the defense of the province was being neglected. Regalian held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image. After some success against the
Sarmatians, his revolt ended when the
Roxolani invaded
Pannonia and killed Regalian in taking the city of
Sirmium. There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited the Roxolani to attack Regalian, but other historians dismiss the accusation. It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near
Verona and that he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person.
Capture of Valerian of Emperor Valerian standing at the background and held captive by
Shapur I was found at
Naqsh-e Rustam,
Shiraz,
Iran. The kneeling man is probably
Philip the Arab. In the East, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles. Bands of "
Scythai" began a naval raid of
Pontus, in the northern part of Asia Minor. After ravaging the province, they moved south into
Cappadocia. A Roman army from Antioch, under Valerian, tried to intercept them but failed. According to
Zosimus, this army was infected by a plague that gravely weakened it. In that condition, this army had to repel a new invasion of the province of
Mesopotamia by
Shapur I, ruler of the
Sassanid Empire. The invasion occurred probably in the early spring of 260. The Roman army was defeated at the
Battle of Edessa, and Valerian was taken prisoner. Shapur's army raided
Cilicia and
Cappadocia (in present-day
Turkey), sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities.
Macrianus revolt It took a rally by an officer named
Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named
Fulvius Macrianus, the remnants of the Roman army in the east, and
Odenathus and his
Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur. The Sassanids were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons
Quietus and
Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors. Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with the Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the
Historia Augusta. At first they met no opposition. The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although
Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case, the army of the usurpers was defeated and surrendered, and their two leaders were killed. In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. Odenathus received the title of
dux Romanorum and besieged the usurpers, who were based at
Emesa. Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261.
Postumus revolt After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Britain, Spain, Germania, and a large part of Gaul when another general,
Postumus, declared his own realm, known today as the
Gallic Empire. The revolt partially coincided with that of
Macrianus in the East. Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian,
Silvanus, in Cologne in 258. Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Rhine, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he distributed it amongst his soldiers. When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him. Postumus made a show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him emperor. Under his command, they besieged Cologne, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed. The date of these events was long uncertain but an
inscription discovered in 1992 at
Augsburg indicates that Postumus had been proclaimed emperor by September 260. Postumus claimed the consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus, but according to D.S. Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy. Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus. The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a big force to oppose them leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus. After some initial defeats, the army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani joined him, and Postumus was expelled. Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit, deliberately allowing Postumus to escape and gather new forces. Gallienus returned in 263 or 265 and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city. During the siege Gallienus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to flee. The standstill persisted until his later death and the
Gallic Empire remained independent until 274. of Gallienus, minted in
Mediolanum (Milan), dated 262
Aemilianus revolt In 262 the mint in
Alexandria started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Egypt had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani. In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt. The rebel this time was the prefect of Egypt,
Lucius Mussius Aemilianus, who had already supported the revolt of the Macriani. The correspondence of
Pope Dionysius of Alexandria provides a commentary on the background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age. Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Egyptian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition. The decisive battle took place near
Thebes, and the result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus. In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266.
Herulian invasions . In the years 267–269,
Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or a single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the
Heruli starting from north of the
Black Sea and leading to the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them,
Athens and
Sparta). Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire. The Romans defeated the barbarians on sea first. Gallienus's army then won a battle in
Thrace, and the emperor pursued the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great
Battle of Naissus, while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor,
Claudius II.
Aureolus revolt In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by
Aureolus, commander of the cavalry stationed in
Mediolanum (
Milan), who was supposed to keep an eye on
Postumus. Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself. The decisive battle took place at what is now
Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan. Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege. There are differing accounts of the murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus's officials wanted him dead. According to the Historia Augusta, an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes, a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard
Aurelius Heraclianus and
Lucius Aurelius Marcianus. Marcianus's role in the conspiracy is not confirmed by any other ancient source. == Assassination ==