The most important fronts of the war were the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre and the Eastern Front (
Valencia,
Alicante,
Maestrat,
Catalonia). Other minor fronts included
Albacete,
Cuenca, and
Castilla La Mancha Opposing plans Carlist battle dispositions As in previous
Carlist Wars, the Carlists focused on raising war parties commanded by provisional commanders. These war parties would carry out irregular warfare, focusing on guerrilla or partisan activities, attacking telegram posts, railways, outposts using
hit and run tactics. The Carlists tried to avoid large cities such as
Bilbao or
San Sebastian, because they were not powerful enough to commit to the siege and capture of such cities. Instead, they showed great skill in attacking undefended towns or isolated outposts, employing their knowledge of the terrain to their benefit. In addition to guerilla parties, there were also several Carlist armies operating in the main theaters of the war under the command of
Carlos VII's most trusted officers. These armies were composed of royalist volunteers which were united under the Carlist banner, forming regular infantry, cavalry and artillery units. The real strength of these forces, however, was questionable due to the lack of military training and discipline among the volunteers. Carlist forces lacked a defined supply line, resulting in a constant lack of horses, ammunition, and weapons. The weapons they actually received were often obsolete. Finally, Carlist forces were severely limited in mobility because they were unable to use the government-held railway network. These handicaps put Carlists at a severe disadvantage in
conventional warfare. As such, Carlists attempted to avoid direct confrontation with the Liberals, and instead relied on
guerrilla warfare to achieve their goals.
Liberals' plans In response to Carlist weaknesses, the Liberals planned to conduct a
pacification war to drive the Carlists into a direct confrontation where the Liberals' superior training, equipment and leadership would prove decisive. These advantages included the control of the railway system, which enabled the transport of troops and supplies from one critical sector to another within days, the experienced troops and officers of the regular Spanish army, the support of large cities such as
Bilbao, and superior weapons and manpower. These advantages were, however, somewhat negated by the political instability of the government and the lack of available resources, such as financing, to suppress the Carlist uprising. The guerrilla attacks carried out by the Carlists were challenging for the Liberals to deal with because of the Carlists' ability to use the terrain to their benefit. All the aforementioned Liberal advantages were largely irrelevant in this kind of warfare, putting both sides on similar footing. However, the Carlist emphasis on guerilla warfare restricted the fighting to specific areas of Spain, limiting the Carlist range of action. Regardless, the suppression of Carlist guerrillas was a hazardous and costly task that required enormous amounts of manpower and resources that, in the first stages of the war, the Liberals were unable to provide. Only with the stabilization of the government under King
Alfonso XII in 1874, were the Liberals able to start turning the tide of the war in their favor.
Outbreak of the hostilities The Carlists' plans called for a general uprising across
Spain, hoping to gain recruits among the least content groups of the Spanish population. On April 20
Carlos VII, the Carlist pretender, appointed General Rada as the commander-in-chief of what would become the Carlist army. After this, plans for a general uprising were established, and April 21 was set as the opening day of the uprising. ,
Prince Henry, Count of Bardi,
Alfonso, Count of Caserta. Seated:
Charles VII of Spain. In response to the uprising, thousands of sympathetic volunteers, most without training and some without weapons, gathered in Orokieta-Erbiti (Oroquieta-Erbiti), north of
Navarre, awaiting Carlos's arrival. As in
Navarre, groups in
Biscay also rose in arms against the government on the same day. Several raiding parties carried out
guerrilla activities across
Catalonia (under the command of generals Tristany, Savalls and Castells),
Castile,
Galicia,
Aragon,
Navarre,
Gipuzkoa,... Arriving from
France on May 2,
Carlos VII himself crossed the
Bidasoa River from France into Spain, and took command of his forces in Orokieta. However, a quick counterattack of 1,000 government troops led by General Moriones assaulted the Carlist camp in Orokieta during the night of May 4, forcing
Carlos VII to retreat to
France. Fifty Carlists were killed and over 700 were taken prisoner. As a result, the Carlists in the
Basque Provinces were left disorganized for nearly the rest of the year. The Battle of Orokieta threatened to end the Third Carlist war almost as soon as it began. The government's victory at Orokieta was a huge setback for the Carlists, but the war was not yet ended. Following their defeat at Orokieta, Carlists from
Biscay, under the leadership of Fausto de Urquizu, Juan E. de Orúe and Antonio de Arguinzóniz, laid down their arms and surrendered, signing the
Conveno de Amorebieta with General Serrano in exchange for a general indult and the possibility of escaping to
France or of being incorporated into the national army. However, in other areas of
Spain, such as in
Castile,
Navarre,
Catalonia,
Aragon and
Gipuzkoa, Carlist parties remained active, engaging government forces in heavy fighting across the area. Though the Carlists suffered a setback in the Basque Provinces, they were far from beaten and still posed a serious threat to the government. Furthermore, the arrangement signed in Amorebieta was rejected by both sides;
Serrano was forced to leave his post, while Carlists denounced those who surrendered as traitors. Meanwhile, in
Catalonia, the uprising started earlier than
Carlos VII had expected. Seventy men led by Joan Castell revolted and started raising supporters to form new war parties. The command post was assumed by
Rafael Tristany until
Carlos VII replaced him with the
Infante Alfonso, Carlos's own brother. Several efforts were made to form a common military structure during the summer of 1872 but were unsuccessful until the arrival of the
Alfonso in December 1872. At the same time, Carlist
Pascual Cucala gained popular support in the
Maestrat. With the arrival of the
infant Alfonso and the reactivation of the war parties, Carlists were able to muster 3,000 men in
Catalonia, 2,000 in
Valencia, and 850 in
Alicante.
The Carlist advance With the failure of the uprising in the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre and the escape of
Carlos VII to
France, Carlist forces regrouped and reformed themselves for the next strike. All high-ranking officials were removed and replaced with new ones, including General Dorregaray who replaced General Rada as the Commander-in-Chief of the Carlist forces in the
Basque Country. A new date was established for another uprising, which would start on December 18, 1872. With the intention of supporting the uprising, small cadres of trained officers entered
Spain to create a Carlist Army in November 1872. New war parties were raised during this period, such as the one famously led by priest
Manuel Santa Cruz. The second Carlist uprising was successful, resulting in the growth of Carlist forces in the first months of 1873. In February, the Carlist army numbered around 50,000 men on all fronts.
1873 Basque Provinces and Navarre In February, after the abdication of King
Amadeo I and the proclamation of the
First Spanish Republic, General Dorregaray arrived to lead the Carlist army in the
Basque Country, starting a campaign against government forces. At May 5, Carlist forces under the command of Dorregaray and Rada won an important victory at
Eraul (Navarre), inflicting heavy casualties on a government army led by General Navarro, taking many prisoners. Three months later,
Carlos VII entered the
Basque Provinces, and in August, Carlist forces captured the city of
Estella, establishing their capital and a provisional government under the leadership of
Carlos VII. The Carlist advance continued with the inconclusive battle of
Mañeru, where both sides claimed victory over the other. One month later, government general Moriones attempted an assault on Estella, defended by the Carlist general Joaquin Elio, but was repulsed with heavy casualties in the nearby town of
Montejurra. Although the battle was inconclusive, both sides claimed victory once again. Estella would remain as a Carlist stronghold until 1876. Combined, the battles of Mañeru and Montejurra led to the victory of Belabieta near
Villabona in
Gipuzkoa, reaffirming the Carlist cause in the surrounding areas, and strengthening their army and morale.
Eastern Front Unlike the situation in the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre, the Carlist cause in
Catalonia,
Aragon,
Maestrat and
Valencia had been successful since the initial uprising in 1872. The arrival of the
Infante Alfonso to take command in December 1872 strengthened the Carlist cause, but the work of other Carlist leaders such as Marco de Bello, who added more men to the cause by organizing several Carlist battalions and the
Compañias del Pilar in
Aragon, was also valuable. The first major encounter between the opposing armies was at
Alpens on July 9, when a government column, led by Jose Cabrinety, was ambushed by Carlist forces under
Francisco Savalls. In the ensuing slaughter, Cabrinety was killed, and his column of 800 men were either killed or captured by Carlists. Another important clash occurred at
Bocairente on December 22, when a government force commanded by General
Valeriano Weyler was attacked by a numerically superior Carlist force led by Jose Santes. Driven back in the initial stage of the fight,
Weyler was able to emerge victorious by leading an effective counter-attack which routed Carlist forces.
1874 Basque Provinces and Navarre 1874 would be the turning point of the war in this region, marking the limit of the Carlist advance with the failure of the siege of
Bilbao and the battles near
Estella. Carlists, encouraged by their recent successes and the instability of the republican government, decided to attempt a critical blow on the government by laying siege to the important city of
Bilbao. At the same time, a strong Carlist force was ordered to
Gipuzkoa to secure the region, which it finally did after capturing
Tolosa on February 28. The siege of
Bilbao would last from February 21, 1874, until May 2, 1874, and was the turning point of the Third Carlist war in the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre, with brutal fighting between both sides for possession of the city.
Siege of Bilbao The Carlist siege of
Bilbao began on February 21, 1874, with the entrenchment of the
Carlists in the hills around
Bilbao, and the cutting-off of the government supply line and communications along the
Ibaizabal River. Carlist besiegers, led by Joaquin Elio and
Carlos VII himself, numbered around 12,000 men, and faced 1,200 government forces in addition to citizens of
Bilbao recruited to serve as auxiliaries. Bombardment of the city began the same day, with Carlist artillery opening fire from their positions in the hills near
Bilbao. The initial objectives were civilian structures such as food stores, bakeries and markets which provided food to the besieged citizens. Trying to undermine the determination and willingness of the citizens to resist, the Carlists continued with the bombardment until mid-April, when the attempts of lifting the siege by the government army under
Serrano forced Carlists to divert attacks to the liberating army and cease the bombardment of the city. Government commanders, determined to lift the siege and liberate
Bilbao, launched a counteroffensive. On February 24, Marshal Serrano sent General Moriones with a relief force of 14,000 men. Carlist besiegers under the command of Nicolas Ollo, entrenched near the town of
Somorrostro, repelled the attackers and inflicted heavy casualties; 1,200 government troops were killed, and many more were wounded. As the assault was halted, Moriones was removed from command due to mental instability. Another attempt was made between March 25–27. Serrano took command of 27,000 men and 70 pieces of artillery and attacked the town of
Somorrostro once again. Joaquin Elio, the Carlist commander in Somorrostro, had 17,000 men able to repel the attack. After three days of heavy fighting around Carlist positions, government forces were driven back. The siege was finally lifted with a renewed offensive on May 1, which succeeded in turning the Carlist flank, forcing them to retreat.
Serrano entered
Bilbao the next day. By the time government forces liberated
Bilbao, the city on the brink of surrender of starvation due to food shortages caused by the Carlist siege.
Government advance against Estella With the Carlist siege of
Bilbao broken, Marshal Serrano sent General
Manuel Gutiérrez de la Concha to lead an attack against the Carlist capital of
Estella. Defended by Generals
Torcuato Mendiri and Dorregaray, the garrison of Estella took positions in the hills on the approach to the town, near
Abárzuza, repelling government forces after fighting which lasted from June 25 to June 27. Half-starved and tired by the long march, government forces were unable to defeat the entrenched Carlists. After suffering over 1,000 casualties, with Gutiérrez among them, the government forces were routed by
Mendiri. By September 24, Carlists still held the
Basque Provinces and most of
Navarre outside of their capitals and kept a 24,000-strong army despite being forced to lift the siege of Bilbao. Government forces made more attempts to take the Carlist capital of Estella despite their earlier failures at Abárzuza. The next attack was a diversionary attack, led by Moriones, southeast of the town of
Oteiza on August 11. Government forces were able to defeat Carlists under the command of Mendiri, gaining a small tactical victory with heavy casualties.
Eastern Front As it had been in the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre, 1874 would be the turning point of the war. It began with a small Carlist defeat in
Caspe,
Aragon, where a government force under Colonel
Eulogio Despujol surprised Manuel Marco de Bello's forces in the town of Caspe, defeating them and forcing to flee in disorder. 200 Carlists were taken prisoner during this surprise attack. However, Carlists, strengthened by reinforcements sent by the
Infante Alfonso from
Vallès in
Tarragona, were able to establish a small state in the
Maestrat, centered around the town of
Cantavieja. They repelled several attacks on
Cantavieja but finally capitulated after a siege. In the meantime, Carlist forces in
Catalonia were extremely active in
Girona and
Tarragona. In March, a Carlist force commanded by
Francesc Savalls laid siege to
Olot (Girona) and frustrated the attempts to relieve the town by defeating a relief army led by Ramon Nouvilas at
Castellfollit de la Roca on March 14. The battle ended with the capture of 2,000 men and Nouviles himself.
Olot capitulated two days after the battle. Immediately, Catalan Carlists set their capital at
Olot, forming a new government in San Joan de les Abadeses with
Rafael Tristany as head of state. The main objective of the government was to establish a political administration of the territories held by Carlist forces in
Catalonia. At
Tarragona,
Infante Alfonso started gathering his forces at
Tortosa. Seeing an opportunity to gain the initiative, Republican Colonel
Eulogio Despujol, victorious over Carlists at
Caspe, attacked a Carlist stronghold led by Colonel Tomas Segarra at
Gandesa on June 4, taking it and inflicting 100 casualties on the Carlists. This success, however, would be irrelevant in the outcome of the war, as
Infante Alfonso gathered a 14,000-strong Carlist army and marched to
Cuenca one month later. Cuenca, 136 kilometers from
Madrid, capitulated after two days of siege and was brutally sacked, but a Republican counter-attack defeated the disordered Carlists, who withdrew beyond the
Ebro River. In October, the splitting of Carlist armies of central Spain and of
Catalonia, as dictated by
Carlos VII, combined with the rivalries between commanders
Savalls and
Infante Alfonso, forced the latter to give up his command and to leave Spain.
Stalemate in the Basque Country and the fall of Catalonia 1875 The
pronounciamiento of General
Arsenio Martinez de Campos and Brigadier Daban proclaimed the restoration of the monarchy on December 29, 1874, enthroning
Alfonso XII, the son of the deposed Queen Regnant
Isabel II, as King. A subsequent manifesto, written by former prominent Carlist leader
Ramon Cabrera, announced his support of the new monarch, severely undermining the Carlist cause. Several Carlist leaders, such as Savalls, Mendiri, Dorregaray and many others, were put on trial for disloyalty by fellow Carlists or removed from command in 1875. From this point onward, Carlists made few advances and instead fought to defend the holdings gained between 1873 and 1874, setting the basis for the end of the war.
Basque Country The restoration of the monarchy and internal dissensions promoted by the royal sympathizer,
Ramon Cabrera, in the Carlist ranks proved fatal for the Carlist cause. Many high-ranking Carlist officers defected and joined the government army, spreading mistrust and suspicion at the Carlist headquarters. Although shaken by recent events, Carlists demonstrated that they had not been defeated yet. On February 3, General
Torcuato Mendiri was able to surprise a government column near Lácar, east of
Estella, recently captured by government forces. In the subsequent battle, the Carlists captured some pieces of artillery, 2,000 rifles and 300 prisoners. 1,000 men died during the battle, most of whom were government troops. The Carlists missed an opportunity for more decisive success when King
Alfonso XII, who was traveling with the column, escaped capture. Once again, the Carlists showed their effectiveness in ambushes. The defeat at Lácar did not stop the Spanish government, however, which launched another offensive in the summer of 1875. This time, the central government's force, advancing into
Navarre under General
Jenaro de Quesada's orders, encountered a Carlist army led by General José Pérula at
Treviño on July 7. General Tello,
Quesada's subordinate, won a decisive victory over the Carlist army, forcing it to retreat in disarray. Soon afterwards,
Quesada entered
Vitoria unopposed and triumphant. Government forces continued their offensive during summer and fall, with two armies encroaching on Carlist territory, one led by General
Quesada and the other by General
Martinez Campos. Carlists responded with a scorched-earth tactic, burning crops and retreating from areas they could not hold against the government's advance. A change in Carlist leadership, with the dismissal of Mendiri and the naming of the
Count of Caserta as commander-in-chief, did not stabilize the situation. Even with 48 infantry battalions, 3 cavalry regiments, 2 engineer battalions and 100 pieces of artillery under his command, the Count was not able to bring government advance to a halt.
Eastern Front After the defeat at
Cuenca and the renunciation of
Infante Alfonso's command, the Carlist cause in
Catalonia started to collapse. The process was accelerated by the government's offensive that took place in
Olot in March, laying siege to
Seo de Urgel, which was taken on August. The fighting in
Catalonia lasted until November 19, when it was considered "pacified" and free of Carlist parties.
End of the war 1876 , carried their wounded to the hospital of the Irache monastery Having lost the war in
Catalonia, and faced with the advance of the two government armies led by Generals
Martinez Campos and
Quesada, Carlists began to prepare their last stand in the
Basque Provinces and
Navarre. The final battle of the war would be fought near
Estella. Government forces, under General
Fernando Primo de Rivera, advanced with the intention to capture Estella in February 1876 in a final offensive to put an end to the Carlist uprising. Carlist forces, this time under General Carlos Calderón, fortified themselves at
Montejurra, a nearby mountain, and built a powerful stronghold. The battle began with a government attack on February 17, which forced Carlist soldiers to withdraw from their defensive positions. The defense inflicted many casualties on government forces, but it did not change the course of the battle. An estimate sets the number of Basque Carlist volunteers at 35,000, while Spanish troops numbered at 155,000. On February 19, government forces drove through the weak Carlist forces protecting Estella, taking the city. The loss of their capital convinced the remaining Carlist forces that their cause was now lost, and they began to head to exile.
Carlos VII was among them, leaving
Spain on February 28, the same day that
Alfonso XII entered
Pamplona with a 200,000-strong army, ending the Third, and final, Carlist war. ==Aftermath==