Horn of Amalthea on a gold coin from
Alexandria, Egypt, produced during the reign of
Ptolemy IV Philopator The "horn of Amalthea", later referred to in Latin literature as the
cornucopia, is a magical horn generally described as being able to produce an inexhaustible supply of any food or drink desired. The tale of this horn seems to have originated as an independent tradition from that of Zeus's raising, though it is uncertain when the two merged. The "horn of Amalthea" is mentioned as early as the 6th century BC by poets such as
Anacreon and
Phocylides, and is commonly referenced in comedies, such as those by
Cratinus,
Aristophanes, and
Antiphanes (who date to the 5th or 4th century BC). The 4th-century BC comic poet
Eubulus composed a now-lost work titled
Amaltheia, which
Richard L. Hunter believes may have dealt with the horn-owning Amalthea and represented her as an innkeeper. According to the
Bibliotheca – a 1st- or 2nd-century AD mythological compendium by an author referred to as "Apollodorus" – the 5th-century BC mythographer
Pherecydes described the horn's ability to provide endless food and drink as desired. Apollodorus also transmits that it is considered to belong to Amalthea, a
nymph (a type of young, female divinity). In a lost poem by the 5th-century BC poet
Pindar,
Heracles fought against the river god
Achelous (who was in the form of a bull) for the hand of
Deianeira, and during the fight Heracles pulled off one of his opponent's horns. Achelous reclaimed this horn from Heracles by trading it for a magical horn obtained from Amalthea, a daughter of
Oceanus. In the same passage in which he cites Pherecydes, Apollodorus retells this story; he describes the nymph Amalthea as the daughter of Haemonius, whose name, meaning "
Thessalian", indicates that she is separate to the
nurse of Zeus. In Apollodorus's account, Amalthea's horn is that of a bull (an element also mentioned by the 4th-to-3rd-century BC comic poet
Philemon), seemingly a result of confusion with the bull's horn of Achelous. In the versions of the myth told by
Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) and
Strabo (1st century BC/AD), the horn of Amalthea is identified with that of Achelous.
Nurse of Zeus In stories of
Zeus's infancy, Amalthea is the figure most commonly described as his nurse, and in this role she is often considered a nymph. She appeared in the account of Zeus's upbringing from the now-lost
Eumolpia, probably a
theogony composed in or before the second half of the 4th century BC, and attributed in antiquity to the mythical poet
Musaeus. This account is described in a summary – written by an author referred to as "Pseudo-Eratosthenes" – of the
Catasterismi, a now-lost work of astral mythology attributed to the 3rd-to-2nd-century BC scholar
Eratosthenes. According to Pseudo-Eratosthenes, in the version by Musaeus, Zeus's mother
Rhea gives him as a newborn to the goddess
Themis; he is then handed over to the nymph Amalthea, who has the infant reared by a she-goat. This goat is said to be the offspring of the god
Helios; she is so terrifying in appearance that, out of fear, the
Titans (the gods from the generation before Zeus) had asked
Gaia, their mother, to conceal her in a Cretan cave. Gaia complied, entrusting the goat to Amalthea. After Zeus reaches adulthood, he receives an oracle advising him to use the goat's skin as a weapon in his war against the Titans, because of its terrifying nature. The narrative from Musaeus is also recounted in
De astronomia, a work of astral mythology probably composed in the 2nd century AD.
De astronomia specifies that this goatskin used against the Titans is the
aegis (a divine attribute which varies in form depending on the source). Various accounts of Zeus's upbringing present Amalthea as a goat; these versions start appearing in the
Hellenistic period (323–30 BC). The earliest known author to describe her as a goat is the 3rd-century BC poet
Callimachus, in his
Hymn to Zeus. He relates that, after Zeus's birth, the god is taken by the
Arcadian nymph
Neda to a hidden location in Crete, where he is reared by the nymph
Adrasteia and fed the milk of Amalthea. In his description of Zeus's suckling of the breast of Amalthea, Callimachus employs the word (), which suggests the breast of a human rather than the teat of a goat; in doing so, Susan Stephens writes that Callimachus "calls attention to his own rationalizing variant of the myth". According to a
scholium on Callimachus's account (that is, a marginal note in a manuscript of his text), from one of Amalthea's horns flows
ambrosia and from the other comes nectar (the food and drink of the gods, respectively). In the version of Zeus's infancy from Diodorus Siculus, the child is reared by nymphs on the milk of the goat Amalthea, as well as honey; Diodorus Siculus adds that Amalthea is the source of Zeus's epithet (, ). An account which is largely the same as that given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes is found in a scholium on the
Iliad, though the scholiast (the scholium's author) describes Amalthea herself as the goat which terrifies the Titans. In works of astral mythology, the tale of the goat who nurses the young Zeus is adapted to provide an
aition (or origin myth) for certain stars. The 3rd-century BC poet
Aratus, in his description of the constellation of the Charioteer (
Auriga), explains that the star of the Goat (
Capella) sits on the Charioteer's left shoulder. He identifies this goat with Amalthea, describing it as the goat who suckled Zeus; in this passage, he employs the word for the goat's breast, similarly to Callimachus, who may be his source for this information. He also refers to her as the "Olenian" goat, which may be an allusion to a version in which Zeus is reared (by a goat) near the
Achaean city of
Olenos, or to the location of the star on the arm (, ) of the Charioteer. Alternatively, it may indicate that the goat's father is
Olenus (the son of
Hephaestus), an interpretation given by a scholium on the passage. At the end of the account given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the text contains a
lacuna (or gap), where it has been proposed that Zeus was described as placing the goat among the stars. Emma Gee believes that in the
Catasterismi the god would have performed this action for the goat's role in his defeat of the Titans, and her nursing of him during his youth.
Merging of traditions According to
Robert Fowler, the nursing of Zeus by a goat and the originally independent tradition of the magical horn had become "entangled" by the time of Pherecydes.
Jan N. Bremmer writes that the Roman poet
Ovid (active around the beginning of the 1st century AD) was the first to bring the two tales together. In Ovid's account, presented in his
Fasti, Amalthea is once again the goat's owner, and is a
naiad (or water nymph) who lives on
Mount Ida. She hides the young Zeus in Crete (away from his father,
Cronus), where he is suckled by the she-goat. On one occasion, the goat snaps off one of its horns on a tree, and Amalthea, filling the broken horn with fruit, brings it back to Zeus; this tale, an aition for the cornucopia, appears to be the earliest attempt at providing an origin for the object. Zeus later places the goat (and perhaps her broken-off horn) in the heavens, the goat becoming the star Capella. Ovid's narrative brings together elements from multiple earlier accounts, which he intertwines in an episode characterised by John F. Miller as a "miniature masterpiece". His source for the narrative's overall outline appears to be Eratosthenes: he describes Amalthea as a nymph, and seemingly alludes to Zeus's war with the Titans. He notably departs from the Eratosthenic story by describing the goat as 'beautiful' () and as having majestic horns. Ovid harks back to Aratus in the first words of his narrative, which mirror the opening phrase of Aratus's poem, and by describing the goat as "Olenian". Barbara Boyd also sees in Ovid's narrative considerable influence from the Callimachean account of Zeus's infancy. Miller points to a garbled scholium on Aratus's account as evidence that the story of Zeus's upbringing and that of Amalthea's magical horn may have already been connected by the time of Ovid. Two variants appear to be mixed in this scholium: Zeus's nurse is an Arcadian woman in the first, and a goat in the second. The scholiast describes the horn of this nurse as Amalthea's horn, which he associates with the constellation of the Goat; Amalthea's horn would seem here to be the magical horn of plenty, though the two are not explicitly identified. Miller also points, as possible further evidence of a tradition in which the two tales were connected, to the scholiast on Callimachus, whose mention of ambrosia and nectar flowing from the goat's horns may have been related to the young Zeus's nourishment.
Later versions who dance raucously. Marble relief from the 2nd century AD,
Capitoline Museum. An account of Zeus's infancy appears in the
Fabulae, a mythological handbook which has been attributed to
Gaius Julius Hyginus and was probably composed in the 2nd century AD. In this version, unlike in Hesiod's
Theogony, Zeus's elder siblings (or some of them) are not swallowed, though Rhea still gives Cronus a stone in place of Zeus, which he consumes. Upon realising the deception, Cronus scours the earth for his son, while Zeus's sister
Hera carries the infant to Crete, where she entrusts him to Amalthea, a nymph in this account. To keep Zeus from his father, Amalthea hides him in a cradle, which she places in a tree, so that he "could not be found in the sky, on earth, or on the sea". To prevent Cronus from hearing the child's cries, Amalthea gathers the Kouretes and supplies them with shields and spears, which she instructs them to clang noisily around the child. According to
Martin Nilsson, this account is not fully a creation of the poet, and probably has some basis in a connection between the young Zeus and tree worship. Later in the work, Hyginus mentions , who has been interpreted as Amalthea; he calls this figure one of the daughters of Ocean (that is, the Titan
Oceanus), alongside Adrasteia and
Ida. He adds that these three are alternatively considered daughters of
Melisseus, the mythical king of Crete, and nurses of Zeus. Other versions of Zeus's upbringing also describe Amalthea as related to Melisseus. In the account given by the late-1st-century BC writer
Didymus, the infant Zeus is raised by the nymphs Amalthea and
Melissa, the daughters of Melisseus, who feed him honey and the milk of a goat. In Apollodorus's version of Zeus's infancy, the god is born in a cave on
Mount Dicte in Crete, where he is fed the milk of Amalthea. He is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and
Ida, the daughters of Melisseus, and protected by the Kouretes, who noisily clang their spears and shields. Amalthea also seems to have appeared in the now-lost
Orphic Rhapsodies, a 1st-century BC or 1st-century AD theogony attributed to the mythical poet
Orpheus in antiquity.
Luc Brisson and West believe that in the poem Amalthea was the wife of Melisseus (a detail transmitted by the 5th-century AD
Neoplatonist philosopher
Hermias) and that her daughters by him, the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, raised Zeus in the cave of the goddess
Night while the Kouretes guarded its entrance. According to the reconstruction of the poem by , Zeus was raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida (still the daughters of Melisseus) and fed the milk of Amalthea, whom Bernabé describes as a "goat-nymph". An Orphic work may have been the source for the version of Zeus's upbringing told by Apollodorus. Diodorus Siculus, in a
euhemerist reworking of Amalthea's myth, describes her as an especially beautiful young woman and the lover of
Ammon, who is the king of
Libya. Ammon gives her a region of great fertility which is shaped like a bull's horn, and which, taking its name from her, comes to be known as "Amalthea's horn". Diodorus Siculus adds that this name is thus used by later generations to refer to any exceptionally fertile and fruitful piece of land. In this version, Amalthea and Ammon are also the parents of the god
Dionysus. The location of Amalthea's rearing of Zeus was evoked in the 1st century BC by an belonging to
Atticus, a friend of the Roman statesman
Cicero. The form of this is unknown, although believes that it included a cave and a gallery housing portraits of distinguished Romans. In the version of the myth from the 2nd-century AD Greek writer
Zenobius, when Zeus places the goat from his childhood among the stars, he sets aside one of her horns, which he gives to the nymphs who raised him, imbuing it with its magical abilities.
De astronomia, which presents an account of the goat Amalthea's nursing of
Jupiter (the equivalent of Zeus in Latin literature), later states that Amalthea also raises
Aegipan, a figure who is in some sources indistinct from the rustic god
Pan.
Nonnus, a 5th-century AD Greek writer, describes Pan as the shepherd of the goat Amalthea. == In art ==