Traditional calligraphic art was bound by strict rules, which, amongst other things, confined it to devotional works and prohibited the representation of humans in manuscripts. Practising calligraphers trained with a master for many years to learn both the technique and the rules governing calligraphy. Contemporary hurufiyya artists, however, broke free from these rules, allowing Arabic letters to be deconstructed, altered and included in abstract artworks. The use of traditional Arabic elements, notably calligraphy, in modern art arose independently in various Islamic states; few of these artists working in this area had knowledge of each other, allowing for different manifestations of hurufiyya to develop in different regions. In Sudan, for instance, the movement was known as the
Old Khartoum School, and assumed a distinctive character in which both African motifs and calligraphy were combined, while media such as leather and wood replaced canvas to provide a distinct African style. In Morocco, the movement was accompanied by the replacement of traditional media for oils; artists favoured traditional dyes such as henna, and embraced weaving, jewellery and tattoo as well as including traditional Amazigh motifs. In Jordan, it was generally known as the
al-hurufiyyah movement, while in Iran, a similar approach was formed which was called the
Saqqa-Khaneh movement. Some scholars have suggested that
Madiha Omar, who was active in the US and Baghdad from the mid-1940s, was the pioneer of the movement, since she was the first to explore the use of Arabic script in a contemporary art context in the 1940s and exhibited hurufiyya-inspired works in Washington in 1949. However, other scholars have suggested that she was a
precursor to Hurufiyya. Yet other scholars have suggested that the hurufiyya art movement probably began in North Africa, in the area around Sudan, with the work of
Ibrahim el-Salahi, who initially explored Coptic manuscripts, a step that led him to experiment with Arabic calligraphy. It is clear that by the early 1950s, a number of artists in different countries were experimenting with works based on calligraphy, including the Iraqi painter and sculptor,
Jamil Hamoudi who experimented with the graphic possibilities of using Arabic characters, as early as 1947; Iranian painters, Nasser Assar (b. 1928) (
:fr:Nasser Assar) and
Hossein Zenderoudi, who won a prize at the 1958 Paris Biennale. Hurufiyya artists rejected Western art concepts, and instead grappled with a new artistic identity drawn from within their own culture and heritage. These artists successfully integrated Islamic visual traditions, especially calligraphy, into contemporary, indigenous compositions. The common theme amongst hurufiyya artists is that they all tapped into the beauty and mysticism of Arabic calligraphy, but used it in a modern, abstract sense. Although hurufiyya artists struggled to find their own individual dialogue with nationalism, they also worked towards a broader aesthetic that transcended national boundaries and represented an affiliation with an
Arab identity in the post-colonial period. The art historian, Christiane Treichl, explains how calligraphy is used in contemporary art: : "They deconstruct writing, exploit the letter and turn it into an indexical sign of calligraphy, tradition and cultural heritage. As the sign is purely aesthetic, and only linguistic in its cultural association, it opens hitherto untravelled avenues for interpretation, and attracts different audiences, yet still maintains a link to the respective artist's own culture... Hurufiyya artists do away with the signifying function of language. The characters become pure signs, and temporarily emptied of their referential meaning, they become available for new meanings." The hurufiyya art movement was not confined to painters, but also included important ceramicists such as the Jordanian,
Mahmoud Taha, who combined traditional aesthetics, including calligraphy, with skilled craftsmanship, and sculptors, such as the Qatari,
Yousef Ahmad and the Iraqi sculptors,
Jawad Saleem and
Mohammed Ghani Hikmat. Nor, was the movement organised along formal lines across the Arab-speaking nations. In some Arab nations, hurufiyya artists formed formal groups or societies, such as Iraq's ''Al Bu'd al Wahad'' (or the
One Dimension Group)" which published a manifesto, while in other nations artists working independently in the same city had no knowledge of each other. Art historian, Dagher, has described hurufiyya as the most important movement to emerge in the Arab world in the 20th-century. However, the
Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture, while acknowledging its importance in terms of encouraging
Arab nationalism, describes hurufiyya as neither "a movement nor a school."
Evolution of hurufiyya Art historians have identified three generations of hurufiyya artists: :
First generation: The pioneers, who were inspired by the independence of their nations, searched for a new aesthetic language that would allow them to express their nationalism. These artists rejected European techniques and media, turning to indigenous media and introducing Arabic calligraphy into their art. For this group of artists, Arabic letters are a central feature of the artwork. First generation artists include: the Jordanian artist,
Princess Wijdan Ali, the Sudanese artist,
Ibrahim el-Salahi; the Iraqi artists,
Shakkir Hassan Al Sa'id,
Jamil Hamoudi and
Jawad Saleem; the Lebanese painter and poet,
Etel Adnan and the Egyptian artist, Ramzi Moustafa (b. 1926). :
Second generation: Artists, most of whom live in exile, but reference their traditions, culture and language in their artworks. The artist,
Dia Azzawi is typical of this generation. :
Third generation: Contemporary artists who have absorbed international aesthetics, and who employ Arabic and Persian script occasionally. They deconstruct the letters, and use them in a purely abstract and decorative manner. The work of
Golnaz Fathi and
Lalla Essaydi is representative of the third generation. ==Types of hurufiyya art==