Kingdom of France Decline of inquisition activity after 1330 , before becoming a cardinal in 1350, was the inquisitor of Toulouse from 1344 to 1348 Around 1330, the activity of the Dominican inquisition in the Kingdom of France significantly declined. In Languedoc, the Cathar sect was completely exterminated. Sporadic trials of Waldensians and Beguines occurred in this region until the late 1340s, but these movements were eventually eliminated. Public
sermones fidei (ceremonies announcing the inquisition's verdicts) were recorded in this area throughout the rest of the 14th century only in 1337 (Toulouse), 1347 (Toulouse and Carcassonne), 1357 (Carcassonne), 1374 (Toulouse), and 1383 (Carcassonne). In the north, sporadic trials of alleged adherents of the so-called "heresy of the Free Spirit" took place, but they were much rarer than, for example, in
Germany. Moreover, from 1332, there was a gradual dependency of the inquisition on the
Parlement of Paris. In the second half of the 15th century, the Parlement of Paris became the superior court to the inquisition and could intervene in its activities, also acting as a court of second instance. The collaboration between the Parlement of Paris and the theological faculty of the
Sorbonne provided competent personnel for handling heresy cases. In Languedoc, from the mid-15th century, the
Parlement of Toulouse played a similar role concerning the inquisitorial tribunals in Toulouse and Carcassonne.
Episcopal inquisition activity in the north Several significant heresy trials in the 15th century took place before episcopal courts. In 1411, Bishop of Cambrai
Pierre d’Ailly investigated the sect called
homines intelligentiæ in
Brussels. In 1431,
Joan of Arc was tried before the tribunal of Bishop
Pierre Cauchon in
Rouen and was burned at the stake. Twenty-five years later, she was posthumously rehabilitated by
Pope Callixtus III after a reinvestigation led by Inquisitor
Jean Bréhal.
Crisis in the 15th-16th century Pope Nicholas V tried to counteract the decline of the inquisition's importance in France. In 1451, he granted the inquisitor of Toulouse, Hugh le Noir, a range of extraordinary powers and extended his jurisdiction to the entire Kingdom of France. However, this decree largely remained theoretical. Even Nicholas V and his successors did not always adhere to it, as evidenced by the documentation of other independent inquisitors in France as early as 1451/1452. The number of inquisitorial appointments in the second half of the 15th century even increased, but this was due to the transformation of the role into an honorary distinction rather than an intensification of anti-heretical activities. Alongside the permanent tribunals in Toulouse, Carcassonne, and Paris, tribunals were established (permanently or temporarily) in cities such as
Lyon,
Cambrai,
Tournai,
Rouen,
Bourges, and
Bordeaux. The internal situation within the Dominican order also played a role, particularly the emergence of reformed, so-called observant congregations, which were exempt from the authority of the provincials. In northern France, the Dutch Congregation began to operate around the mid-15th century, setting up inquisitorial tribunals in the
southern Netherlands, previously under the direct jurisdiction of the inquisitor general in Paris. In the south, the French Observant Congregation claimed the right to staff the tribunals in Toulouse and Carcassonne, leading to factional disputes among the Dominicans and competition for inquisitorial positions. The struggle for the position of the inquisitor of Toulouse was especially intense between 1531 and 1538. During this time, inquisitorial appointments required approval by the king and the parlements in Paris and Toulouse (depending on the tribunal's location).
Witch trials Despite the general decline in the inquisition's activity and importance in France in the 15th century, some French inquisitors were involved in
witch hunts. However, the evidence is scarce, as few trial records from this period have survived, and some trials are known only from narrative sources or theological treatises. The Dominican theologian
Johannes Nider, writing in 1437, mentioned witch trials in the
Diocese of Autun, conducted by a Dominican inquisitor from Lyon, without specifying the exact dates or details. Spanish Franciscan
Alonso de Espina in 1459 alluded to witches burned for participating in
sabbaths by the tribunal in Toulouse, without providing further details. Jean Vineti, inquisitor of Carcassonne from 1451, wrote a theological treatise arguing for the reality of witchcraft crimes, but nothing is known about his practical activities. Better documented are witch trials in the north led by the deputies of the inquisitor general Roland le Cozic, such as the trial in
Évreux in 1453 or in Arras between 1459 and 1462. In the latter, 12 out of 34 accused were burned, with many suspects brutally tortured. These actions provoked strong protests and were interrupted by the intervention of the bishop of Arras, the Parlement of Paris, and inquisitor Jean Bréhal. In 1491, the Parlement of Paris rehabilitated all the condemned.
Scandals in Toulouse (1532–1538) In the 1520s,
Lutheran ideas began to spread in France, but the main burden of combating them was taken up by the parlements, not the papal inquisitors, some of whom were
humanists open to new intellectual currents. In 1532, the Parlement of Toulouse ordered the arrest of 55 people, mostly associated with the
University of Toulouse, suspected of Lutheranism. Most fled, but 23 were captured and tried, with one burned at the stake. The then-inquisitor of Toulouse, Arnaud de Badet, refused to participate in the trial, and it soon emerged that some of the arrested were his friends. Consequently, the parlement accused the inquisitor of favoring heretics, leading to his resignation in 1536. His successor, , was embroiled in an even greater scandal. In 1538, the Parlement of Toulouse arrested him for heresy and, after a swift trial, sentenced him to be burned at the stake. The charges against Rochette were likely a drastic manifestation of internal factional rivalry over the position of the inquisitor of Toulouse, with one of his accusers being his successor, Vidal de Becanis.
Marginalization of the inquisition The scandals shaking the inquisition in Languedoc led to King
Francis I formally transferring heresy cases to the jurisdiction of the parlements in 1539, marginalizing the inquisitors who, while retaining some autonomy (especially in trials against clergy), effectively became mere theological advisors to the parliamentary courts. In northern France, this process occurred even earlier, as in 1525, with the consent of
Pope Clement VII, a special commission for combating heresy was created within the Parlement of Paris. Practically all heresy trials in northern France during the
Reformation were conducted by parliamentary courts, with only auxiliary participation from the inquisitor. The last inquisitor general appointed under the old rules was Dominican Mathieu d’Ory, who died in 1557.
Provence Persecution of the Waldensians After the extermination of the Cathars, the only substantial dissident movement in the French-speaking territories was the Waldensians, primarily residing in the
Dauphiné, especially in the
Alpine valleys of Valpute, Argentiere, Valculson, and Freyssiniere. These areas, since 1288, were part of the inquisitorial province of Provence, entrusted to the Franciscans. However, for a long time, the Waldensians were not significantly troubled by the Inquisition, especially after two deputies of the inquisitor Jacques Bernard were killed by them in 1321. In 1335,
Pope Benedict XII demanded intensified repression. Since the Waldensians lived in mountainous regions where they formed tight-knit communities and did not hesitate to use violence in their defense, inquisitors had to seek help from secular authorities and organize armed expeditions against their settlements. The effectiveness of these actions was low, as the Waldensians usually hid in the mountains, and few were captured by the inquisitors. These expeditions often ended with the exhumation and burning of heretics' remains from local cemeteries and the confiscation of modest property left in the valleys by the Waldensians. Captured heretics generally declared conversion to Catholicism, but after the troops and inquisitor left, they returned to heresy, which meant death by burning at the stake if they were prosecuted again. Executions of Waldensians took place in 1347 in Qirieu and in 1348 in
Embrun. From 1352 to 1363, when Guillaume de Bordes served as
Archbishop of Embrun, inquisitorial activity against the Waldensians almost ceased, as the archbishop adopted a strategy of converting them through pastoral work rather than repression. During this time, the inquisitors mainly dealt with suspicions of false conversions among Provençal Jews to Christianity. However, after the death of Archbishop Guillaume de Bordes in 1363, the repressive approach towards the Waldensians resurfaced. In 1366, several Waldensians were burned at the stake, and their properties were confiscated. In 1371, François Borel became the inquisitor of Provence, gaining a particularly bad reputation among locals. In 1380, he issued death sentences in absentia for 169 people and led many armed expeditions until 1393 to capture and execute the condemned. Many captured complied with the church and were only fined. The rest were burned at the stake, and their properties confiscated. After 1393, the persecution of the Waldensians ceased for a time. It is possible that church authorities believed that through Borel's actions and later missionary work by
Vincent Ferrer (1399–1403), they had forced all to convert and eliminated the resistant ones. This might be inferred from the appointment letter for inquisitor Ponce Feugeyron in 1409, where
Alexander V lists several offenses for the new inquisitor to address but does not mention the Waldensians. If this was their belief, they were soon proven wrong. In 1432, inquisitor Pierre Fabre wrote to the
Council of Basel that he had just imprisoned six Waldensians who identified over 500 fellow believers in the Alpine valleys. However, there is no indication that attempts were made to arrest the other suspects. The next reports of Waldensian persecution come from 1475. The decline in the importance and authority of the Inquisition at this time is evidenced by the fact that the Waldensians successfully appealed to King
Louis XI. A royal ordinance on 18 May 1478 declared that the residents of the Alpine valleys were good Catholics and prohibited royal officials from assisting the inquisitors in persecuting them. Protests from
Pope Sixtus IV were to no avail. Only the death of Louis XI in 1483 allowed the resumption of repression. In 1486, Archbishop of Embrun, Jean Bayle, called on all Waldensians from the valleys of Valpute, Argentiere, Valculson, and Freyssiniere to submit to the church or leave these lands. They ignored this call. In response,
Pope Innocent VIII proclaimed a
crusade. It was organized in 1488, led by the
Archdeacon of Cremona, Alberto Cattaneo, and the Count of
Saint-Paul-de-Varax, Hugo de La Palu. The Parlement of
Grenoble officially supported the crusade. The armed expedition failed against the guerrilla forces near
Prali, turning into a bloody pacification of Waldensian settlements. About 160 people were murdered, accounting for 1/10 of the Waldensian population, but most managed to seek refuge in the mountains. In 1489, the troops left the Dauphiné, failing to achieve their goals. In 1509, the Waldensians obtained from King
Louis XII and the church authorities the rehabilitation of those murdered during the 1488–1489 crusade and the annulment of the confiscations made then. Although it was acknowledged that the deceased were heretics, they were not given a chance to convert, making it impossible to consider their executions and property confiscations as lawful.
Witch trials The areas under the jurisdiction of Provençal inquisitors (Dauphiné, Aosta Valley) also became the scene of some of the earliest witch hunts in European history. As early as 1409, Pope Alexander V mentioned a supposedly new sect of sorcerers in the Alps in a letter to inquisitor Ponce Feugeyron. Although the major witch hunts in the Dauphiné between 1428 and 1447 were conducted by secular courts, especially Judge Claude Tholosan, trials for these offenses also took place before inquisitors or episcopal officials. One of the most famous is the trial of Pierre Valin, sentenced to death by the inquisitorial tribunal in
La Tour-du-Pin in 1438.
Jean de Roma The decisions made in 1509 did not favor further inquisitorial activities against the Waldensians. However, in 1528, the Dominican Jean de Roma (died 1533) became the inquisitor in this area. Initially supported by the
Parlement of Aix-en-Provence, in 1532, he resumed the persecution of the Waldensians and in February 1533 sentenced 7 of them to be burned. However, shortly afterward, he was summoned by the parlement to respond to complaints about the cruel torture of suspects. His activities were suspended, and he soon died from the
plague. His death marked the end of the Inquisition's history in those parts of the Provençal province belonging to the Kingdom of France. This did not mean the end of repression against the Waldensians. In 1545, by order of the Parlement of Aix-en-Provence, a bloody pacification of Waldensian villages in Provence took place. In papal Avignon, a tribunal of the reformed Roman Inquisition was established in 1541, led by the Dominicans, which conducted very intensive activities against suspected
Protestants in the 16th century.
Burgundy-Lorraine 14th century The activities of the Inquisition in the inquisitorial province of Besançon (Burgundy and Lorraine) during the 14th century are among the least documented. It is unclear whether there was one inquisitor or several. In 1356, Dominican Jean de Fontaine, titled as the
Inquisitor of Lorraine, was dismissed by the general chapter of the Dominican Order. The names of several other inquisitors from this area are also known, including one () who even became a bishop, but sources do not provide information about trials against heretics. It was only in 1399 that proceedings against the Waldensians took place in the
Diocese of Lausanne.
Ulric de Torrenté Inquisitorial activity in the Burgundy-Lorraine province intensified in the 1420s, particularly with witch trials. Appointed in 1424, inquisitor from the
Lausanne convent, whose jurisdiction covered the entire province, was one of the co-authors of the first major witch hunt in history. This took place in the
Diocese of Sion (southwestern
Switzerland) between 1427 and 1436 and claimed several hundred victims. Until recently, this witch hunt was considered solely the work of secular judges. However, the discovery of new documentation revealed that some trials in 1428 were conducted under the direction of inquisitor Ulric de Torrenté. The same inquisitor led trials against the Waldensians in
Fribourg between 1429 and 1430, and again conducted witch trials in Lausanne and
Neuchâtel between 1438 and 1439.
Division of the province into smaller districts Around the mid-15th century, the province was definitively divided into smaller inquisitorial districts. Initially, there were probably three districts: Lorraine (including the dioceses of Metz, Toul, and Verdun), the archdiocese of Besançon, and the Franco-Swiss district, including the dioceses of Lausanne, Sion, and Geneva, with the main center initially in Lausanne and after 1476 in Geneva. Some of these districts later underwent further subdivisions. In the 1520s, each of the three Lorraine dioceses had its own inquisitor. Between 1472 and 1476, the Diocese of Geneva constituted an independent inquisitorial district, separate from the tribunal in Lausanne.
Witch trials More information regarding inquisitorial activities has been preserved for the tribunal of the Lausanne-Geneva-Sion district. Throughout the 15th century, witch trials regularly occurred there. These trials usually targeted small groups of suspects, with no witch hunts on a scale comparable to the 1427–1436 period. There are also scant mentions of witch trials from the other two districts of the Burgundy-Lorraine province, although these come from a slightly later period (late 15th and early 16th centuries).
Reformation period In the 1520s, the first trials against supporters of the Reformation took place in
Lorraine and
Franche-Comté, involving inquisitors. However, by 1534, the parlement of Franche-Comté stripped ecclesiastical courts (both bishops and inquisitors) of jurisdiction over heresy cases. The office of the inquisitor in Besançon survived but became purely honorary. In
Geneva, the Inquisition lasted only until the dissolution of Dominican monasteries during the Reformation. The last inquisitor in Lorraine, Jean Beguinet, died in 1558. == 16th–18th century ==