Rise Pre-jihad The earliest reference of
Fulbe around the area of the Adamawa region was in the
Kanem-Bornu empire when they came as envoys of the
emperor of Mali during the 13th century. A century later, more Fulbe migrated to
Hausaland especially to
Kano during the reign of
Yakubu. These Fulani settlers brought many books on Islamic thought and Law from
Mali. Some others continued further east to
Bornu and settled there. There was a steady flow of Fulbe immigrants to this region and by the 16th-century there were considerable number of them in
Hausaland,
Bornu,
Bagirmi and among the
Jukun in
Kwararafa.
Fulbe Under Bornu The Fulbe became known for their learning and understanding of Islam. The
Bornu king, Mai Dunama ibn Hajj Ali (1476–1503), gave official recognition to their contribution to the Muslim community in
Bornu. He conferred upon an Ardo (Fulani chief) and removed the requirement for him and all the Fulbe he led to pay taxes. All the subsequent Mais (or kings) of Bornu honoured this arrangement throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. It was not unusual to find the
Bornu kings going to war on other groups to protect the Fulbe from raids during this period. This Fulbe, in turn, continued teaching and joining the army to fight for Bornu. At the turn of the 18th-century however, perhaps due to their political ambition, Fulani people lost the support of the Bornu aristocracy. Mai Hamdan ibn Dunama failed to honour the tax agreement and the Fulbe were openly harassed in the kingdom. Due to this and other factors like famine and the general decline of the
Kanem-Bornu empire, many Fulbe decided to find new homes elsewhere which led to many to migrate to
Hausaland and the Adamawa region. In order to live in peace in these areas, some Fulani groups agreed to this arrangement. Many of the families however, evaded the custom by paying a bull or two to the chief as a substitute. In most cases, when certain conditions or practices were enforced on the Fulbe, they left the area to find a more suitable place (like in
Bornu) but in this case, in the Benue regions, the conditions were too favourable for permanent settlements. The rich Fulani families did not worry having to pay to avoid the
jus primae noctis but the problem came from how the payments were collected. The chief would send his collectors to the father of the girl or the head of the family when he thinks he would not receive enough from the Ardo. He would then proceed to select the required number of cattle usually picking out the best cattle. At around 1803, this practice caused a conflict. One Ardo Njobbo of the Ba'an (a Fulani clan), refused to make the payment or surrender his daughter to a local prince. The prince then proceeded to pick out a cattle from the Ardo's herd. Njobbo then ordered his men to kill the prince which led to a violent conflict between local Fulbe and Bata groups. This fight is said to have led to the death of
Modibbo Adama's father, Modibbo Hassana.Many Fulbe lived among the
Batta people. The Batta had large numbers and were well organised socially and politically. They were seen as a formidable force. They were experienced and fierce fighters who were also effective in archery with their utilisation of poison arrows. The Batta were separated into many groups and clans but the Fulbe Muslims feared that they would unite under one force to fight them. This can lead to a long war introducing constant instability in the emirate. The
Verre had fewer numbers than the Batta. They were not as organised and generally avoided wars. They have been forced to flee from their original settlements by Batta and
Jukun forces. They resettled in the
Verre hills in the 18th century. The Verre welcomed Fulani pastoralists, particularly from the Ba'en clan, after they were also forced to flee by the Batta. These two groups regularly came together to defend against raids from the Batta. It was in the interest of the Fulbe to maintain this relationship during the jihad. The Verre also had a large supply of iron and were valuable smiths who skillfully made arrow heads, knives, hoes, and spears.
War against the Kingdom of Mandara The
Mandara kingdom, along with the
Bornu empire, was one of the most significant and well-organized states in the region. It held considerable power and influence, with its capital at Dulo, and controlled extensive territories. The Mandara kingdom had a history of conflicts with Bornu, and these clashes played a crucial role in shaping their relationship. Notably, Mandara was the sole
Muslim state located south of Bornu, and it embraced Islam in the early 18th century, during the reign of
Mai Bukar al-Hajj. Adama's jihad against Mandara held immense importance in the overall jihad efforts, and this conflict later became a central feature in Adama's campaigns north of the
Benue River.
Dulo campaign In the latter part of 1810, Adama assembled a sizable army and embarked on a campaign towards Mandara due to ongoing reports of Mandara's hostility towards the Fulani. Travelling through the
Tiel River valley, Adama's forces arrived at
Guidder. With the assistance of the local Fulbe population, Adama launched an attack against Guidder's chief, Mulli Mali, after he refused to submit and was subsequently killed. Guidder was conquered by Adama's forces. They continued their northward advance, converting numerous villages along the way. However, some villages that resisted surrender sought refuge in difficult-to-reach areas, inaccessible to cavalry. Adama established his camp at
Petté, a few miles south of Dulo, the capital of Mandara. From there, he sent a letter to the Mai of Mandara,
Bukar Djiama, asserting that
Shehu Usman appointed him as
Lamido and that Mandara fell under his
jurisdiction, requiring the Mai to pay homage. In response, Bukar acknowledged Adama's authority over the Fulani and sent him presents, including a female slave. However, he adamantly refused to compromise his own sovereignty over Mandara. Afterwards, Adama swiftly moved his forces to Pata, an open field that provided an advantageous setting for his cavalry. The Mandara army attempted to attack Adama's force but was unsuccessful and forced to retreat. Adama pursued them to Dulo, the capital of Mandara, which fell with little resistance. However, Mai Bukar retreated further east to
Mora, a location with better defenses against cavalry. Dulo suffered extensive devastation at the hands of Adama's army. Adama then faced challenges in establishing a stable government in the city as most of its able-bodied inhabitants had either perished in battle or fled with Bukar. It became clear that Adama would need to remain in Mandara for an extended period to establish any form of governance. Complicating matters, the behavior of his men made this task difficult as their focus shifted solely to acquiring war spoils, neglecting the defense of the town. Subsequently, the Mandara warriors returned to Dulo, swiftly recaptured it, and pursued the Fulbe forces well beyond the borders of the kingdom. The deteriorating relationship between Mandara and the Fulani worsened when Mai Bukar initiated raids on Fulani camps within his territory, capturing many Fulani Muslims as slaves. Concurrently, the Fulani settlements in
Maroua,
Mindif,
Guider, and
Bogo were solidifying their control over the
Diamare region and the
Mundang people. Prior to Adama's jihad, Bukar frequently utilized these settlements for slave raids. The increasing influence of the Fulani in the area significantly impacted Bukar's economic and political power. In response to the slave raids, the Fulani constructed defensive outposts fortified with massive barricades, effectively defending against both Mandara and Bornu raiders. Consequently, an alliance formed between Bornu and Mandara against the Fulbe.
Battle of Mosfei In 1823, a
treaty of alliance was signed between
Bornu and
Mandara. Additionally, Mai Bukar offered his daughter in marriage to the
Mai of Bornu,
Ibrahim Ahmed. Together, they successfully launched a joint expedition into
Musgum, located southwest of Mandara. By the end of 1823, tensions between Mandara and the Fulani reached their peak. The Bornu court received a delegation of well-armed
Arabs, presenting an opportunity for another expedition. Bukar proposed targeting two Fulani strongholds: Mosfei and Zuay near
Modzgo. The attack was launched after careful planning by Bukar. However, the Fulani forces had entrenched themselves behind high palisade barriers and unleashed a barrage of poisoned arrows on the allied Bornu and Mandara forces. The Fulani defense proved too formidable, forcing the allied forces to retreat. This battle was witnessed by the explorer
Dixon Denham, and his firsthand account can be found in
Clapperton's journal,
Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa. Following the battle at Mosfei, the Fulani and Mandara entered a period of ongoing conflicts. To strengthen his position, Mai Bukar was compelled to fortify
Mora and establish it as his administrative capital. Meanwhile, Dulo became the royal capital, serving as a symbolic center of power akin to
Windsor or
Versailles, where the Mai resided for parts of the year. Even today, when the
Mais of Mandara ascend to the throne, they visit Dulo to don the
leopard skin and other symbols associated with Gayae, the legendary founder of the kingdom. During this time, the Fulani gained control over the eastern part of Mandara. Settlements such as
Mubi,
Moda,
Madagali,
Michika,
Guidder, and others firmly came under Adama's domain, with each having its own
lamido.
Fall By 1901, the emirates of
Bida,
Ilorin,
Agaye,
Lapai and
Kontagora had fallen to the British through the
Royal Niger Company. The aristocracy of Adamawa were held intense debates on whether to resist the British or submit when they eventually invade the emirate as the military might of the
Royal Niger Company was much greater. The party who preferred to resist eventually won the debate. This party was led by the Lamido,
Zubairu bin Adama. The other party included the Hamman Joda (the
Qadi), Bobbo Ahmadu (the Lamido's younger brother) and Yerima Iyabeno (the Lamido's nephew). Lamido Zubairu's insistence on resistance was influenced by his hatred for the Europeans who divided and plan to further divide his emirate. By 1901, the Germans had already taken his sub-emirate
Tibati and had been making moves towards taking the sub-emirates of
Ngoundere and
Bamnyo. His strong respect for the Sokoto Caliphate and its ideals also influenced his decision to resist. In a letter to Sultan Abdurrahman announcing the fall of Yola to the British,
Lamido Zubairu pledged:
I will not be two-faced, on your side and on the side of the Christians too. My allegiance is to you, to God and the Prophet, and after you to the Imam Mahdi. There is no surrender to the unbeliever even after the fall of the strongholds. Invasion of Yola Whilst the Germans fought the
Adamawa Wars against the Emirate separately, the British deployed 22 European officers and
NCOs and 365 mercenaries, 275-mm guns and 4
Maxim guns, led by Colonel T.N.L. Morland for the occupation of
Yola on 2 September 1901. They travelled using steamboats on the lake Njuwa and were anchored near a
baobob tree locally called Bokki Hampeto. Colonel Morland sent a
Shuwa Arab resident of Yola to send a letter to the Lamido containing their terms. The messenger came back three minutes later with the message that
Lamido Zubayru refused to receive the letter. Upon receiving this message, Morland moved his troops closer to the town and then sent his messenger once again to the Lamido with threat that if his letter is refused again he would take steps to compel him to open it. Before the return of his messager, people riding on horses came out of the town to block the British. The messenger returned once again failing to deliver the letter to Lamido Zubairu as he was sent back and was told by the Lamido to warn Morland to retreat. More horsemen streamed out of the town to confront Morland and his forces. Morland calculated that it would be to their advantage to allow the people of Yola to attack first in the open. He felt it was much better than fighting in the narrow streets of Yola. He waited for the first attack from 10am to 1pm "after much shouting and exhorting from their mallams". Despite the battle starting, Morland ordered his men to "reserve our fire till the leaders were within 200 yards" before he have the order for the
maxim guns to be fired. After this attack, Morland's forces went on the offensive. They advanced through the town till they reached the Lamido's palace and Friday mosque which were heavily defended. Morland himself was wounded by an arrow. After this battle, the casualties Morland's forces suffered were 2 men killed and 37 wounded while the Yola forces suffered 50 men killed and 150 wounded.
Aftermath The morning after, the British forces blew up the palace's visitors chambers and other "important looking buildings" in the town of Yola. Morland also heard rumors that
Lamido Zubayru, who escaped with his life, fled to Gurin, forty miles east of Yola. Acting Commissioner Wallace with Colonel Morland, by steamboat, quickly travelled to Gurin in pursuit of the Lamido. With them were 8 European officers and NCOs, 150 mercenaries and 2 maxim guns. After journeying on the
river Benue, river Faro and river Heso for 26 hours, they arrived in Gurin only to be told that Emir was never there. They turned back towards Yola without any encounter. They later got information that Zubaryu was in Ribadu, fourteen miles behind them. Wallace turned back to Yola to appoint a new "Lamido" while Morland and his forces marched towards Ribadu only to find out Lamido Zubayru had also not been there. Morland spent the night in Ribadu. On the morning of 7 September, Colonel Morland shelled the town of
Ribadu before returning to Yola.
Boboa Ahmadu was later installed as Lamido Adamawa by the British colonial administrators. == Chronology of Events ==