Gabriel's Rebellion

Gabriel ( – October 10, 1800), referred to by some as Gabriel Prosser (though no historical records refer to him by that surname, the surname of his enslaver), was a Virginia born man of African descent born into slavery in 1776 at Brookfield, a large tobacco plantation in Henrico County, Virginia. was able to keep a portion of the wages that he earned. The bulk of it went to Thomas Prosser. Gabriel was described in newspaper articles as having stood "six feet two or three inches high." His long and "bony face, well made," was marred by losing his two front teeth and "two or three scars on his head." White people as well as black people regarded the literate young man as "a fellow of great courage and intellect above his rank in life." In 1799, Gabriel, his brother Soloman, and a man named Jupiter tried to steal a pig from Absalom Johnson. Gabriel got into a scuffle with Johnson, and he bit off part of Johnson's ear. Jupiter was charged with stealing a hog, which was a misdemeanor, and Soloman was not charged. It was a capital offense for an enslaved person to assault a white person. He could have been hanged for the assault. Because he was a valuable bondsman for Prosser, the judge sentenced him to jail for one month and had his thumb branded. Gabriel was released from jail when enslaver Prosser paid a bond for his release, and he promised a year of good behavior. Richmond history professor and slave law expert Philip J. Schwarz states that it showed Gabriel's intention "to consciously challenge the system of slave control." Historian Douglas R. Egerton, author of ''Gabriel's Rebellion,'' states: "He was physically big, he was literate, he's a fighter, he's a skilled artisan. For all these reasons, he was a natural leader." ==Background to the revolt==

In Richmond, there were slightly more blacks than whites, with a total population of 5,700 in 1800. Richmond promoted slavery, with a community whipping post where enslavers had punishment meted out in a public square. Enslaved men loaded and moved flatboats of tobacco and other cargo. Throughout the state in 1800, 39.2% of the total population were enslaved; they were concentrated on plantations in the Tidewater region and west of Richmond. Gabriel, living in Virginia in the late eighteenth century, was influenced by the prevailing themes of liberty expounded by the supporters of the American Revolution. During his lifetime, the number of free people of color had grown markedly in the Upper South. Many enslaved people were manumitted thanks in part to the efforts of Methodist and Quaker abolitionists. Their number was augmented by free gens de couleur refugees from the Haitian Revolution, many of whom had been enslavers themselves. Some Virginia enslavers were nervous about the sharp increase in the number of free blacks in the slave state. ==The revolt and outcome==

Some historians assert that Gabriel became the leader of the planned rebellion because he was highly intelligent, literate, and a blacksmith. Enslaved and free African-American men in Virginia taught their metalwork skills to their sons. During the spring and summer of 1800, Gabriel began planning a revolt to end slavery in Virginia. Plans were made with enslaved people over ten counties and the cities of Richmond, Norfolk, and Petersburg, Virginia. He, his brothers, and other blacksmiths turned scythe blades into as many as twelve dozen swords. Musket balls and 50 spears were created. They intended to steal muskets from a tavern. In addition, two enslaved people told their enslaver, Mosby Sheppard, about the plans. Sheppard warned Governor Monroe, who called out the state militia. They patrolled the area and began picking up conspirators. More than 70 enslaved men were arrested by law enforcement for conspiracy and insurrection. One individual committed suicide before his arraignment. Eight enslaved men were moved or sold outside Virginia. Thirteen were found guilty but were pardoned by the governor. Twenty-five were acquitted. Two men received their freedom for informing their enslavers of the plot. ==Correcting the Narrative==

The site of Gabriel's execution and burial for several recent years, (since the rediscovery of the Shockoe Bottom African Burial Ground in the 1990s) was mistakenly believed to have been at the Shockoe Bottom African Burial Ground, historically known on the Richard Young 1809/1810 Plan of the city of Richmond as the Burial Ground for Negroes. His execution was advertised in 1800 as occurring at the usual place; however, until 1806, the "usual place" was not yet the location of the Burial Ground for Negroes in Shockoe Bottom. The "usual place" of execution in 1800 was a place referred to as Gallows Hill near Canal St. at 1st St. The location of Gabriel's burial, as well as others who were executed on Gallows Hill for their involvement in the insurrection, was reported in the newspaper to have been the "Old Baptist Church Burying Ground", the burying ground connected to the old Baptist Church (originally organized as the Richmond Baptist Church) on Cary St., and was said to have been a sort of potters' field used primarily for the interment of Negroes. This burying ground at the old Baptist Church (First Baptist Church) was located on the northern side of Cary St. between 2nd St. and 3rd St., just a couple of blocks from the place of execution on Gallows Hill a little over a mile away from the Shockoe Bottom African Burying Ground. ==Influence==

The rebellion was reported in newspapers across the country. James Monroe and Thomas Jefferson were concerned about the optics of executing so many people. Jefferson said, "The other states & the world at large will forever condemn us if we indulge in a principle of revenge." The Federalists argued that the rebellion occurred as a result of the Democratic-Republican Party's support of the French Revolution. New laws were enacted to restrict free blacks and slaves. ==Historiography==

The historian Douglas Egerton offered a new perspective on Gabriel in his book ''Gabriel's Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 & 1802'' (1993). He based this on extensive primary research from surviving contemporary documents. The internal dynamics of Jefferson's and Monroe's party in the 1800 United States presidential election were complex. A significant part of the Democratic-Republican base were prominent planters and colleagues of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Egerton believes that any sign that white radicals, particularly Frenchmen, had supported Gabriel's plan could have cost Jefferson the election. Enslavers feared such violent excesses as those related to the French Revolution after 1789 and the Haitian Revolution. Egerton believed that Gabriel planned to take Governor Monroe hostage to negotiate an end to slavery. Then, he planned to "drink and dine with the merchants of the city". Egerton noted that Gabriel instructed his followers not to kill white Methodists, Quakers, and Frenchmen. During this period, Methodists and Quakers were active missionaries for manumission. ==Legacy and honors==

Gabriel's rebellion was an important example of enslaved people acting to gain freedom: • In 2002, the City of Richmond adopted a resolution to commemorate the 202nd anniversary "of the execution of the patriot and freedom fighter, Gabriel, whose death stands as a symbol for the determination and struggle of slaves to obtain freedom, justice and equality as promised by the fundamental principles of democratic governments of the Commonwealth of Virginia and the United States of America". • The Spring Park Historic Site in Henrico County commemorates Gabriel. ==Popular culture==

• Arna Bontemps wrote Black Thunder (1936), a historical novel based on Gabriel's Rebellion. • Gigi Amateau wrote Come August, Come Freedom: The Bellows, The Gallows, and The Black General Gabriel (2012), a historical fiction novel based on Gabriel's Rebellion. • In Roots, Alex Haley's historical fiction, the rebellion is heard of by the book's characters. • In Sally Hemings, Barbara Chase-Riboud's 1979 novel about Hemings's relationship with Thomas Jefferson, Monroe writes Jefferson asking his advice on what to do about the insurrectionists still in jail after "(m)ore than thirty-five" had been executed. Hemings intercedes on their behalf, telling Jefferson, "I think there has been enough hanging," and suggests they be exiled instead. Although it is not made explicit in the novel, it is implied that Jefferson followed her suggestion and advised Monroe accordingly. At the end of the chapter, Hemings says, "I heard that the last of Gabriel's rebels had been reprieved and banished from Virginia by James Monroe. I had not pleaded in vain." • "Gabriel, the Musical" was produced at Firehouse Theatre in Richmond, Virginia, from September 8, 2022, through October 2, 2022. With libretto by Jerold Solomon, Foster Solomon and Ron Klipp and Music & Lyrics by Ron Klipp, the musical tells a semi-fictionalized account of the development of Gabriel's conspiracy and its aftermath on the conspirators, the local government, and the nation. The production was funded in part by a 2020 grant from the National Endowment for the Arts (grant 1861109-28-20). Songs • Tim Barry, a singer/songwriter from Richmond, wrote and performed "Prosser's Gabriel" for the album 28th & Stonewall. It chronicles the events of Gabriel's life, focusing on the attempted revolution. • Gabriel is mentioned in Public Enemy's song "Prophets of Rage." • Gabriel is the hero of a cleverly subversive sea shanty recorded some forty years after events in Frederick Marryat's book, Poor Jack (1840). ==See also==