Palatinate Campaign, Early Migrations farms and towns during the
Thirty Years' War In the second half of the 17th century, the
Palatinate had not yet fully recovered from the destructions of the
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), in which large parts of the region had lost more than two thirds of its population. The first Palatine migrations began during the
Palatinate campaign, which saw heavy fighting in the Palatinate, collapse of the state's economy, and the wholesale slaughter of the region's population, including women, children and non-combattants. Although the plan for the
Maryland Palatinate—a colony established by the
Calvert family (Lords of Baltimore) as a haven for Catholic refugees—started as early as 1632, major German settlement did not occur until the latter part of the 1700s. The heaviest concentration of Palatines settled in Western Maryland, although their direct arrival to the colony (as opposed to coming from Pennsylvania) was rare before the 1740s. Throughout the
Nine Years' War (1688–1697) and the
War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), recurrent invasions by the French Army devastated the area of what is today Southwest Germany. During the Nine Years War the French had used a
scorched-earth policy in the Palatinate. The depredations of the French Army and the destruction of numerous cities (especially within the Palatinate) created economic hardship for the inhabitants of the region, exacerbated by a rash of harsh winters and poor harvests that created
famine in Germany and much of northwest Europe. The specific background of the migration from the Palatinate, as documented in emigrants' petitions for departure registered in the southwest principalities, was impoverishment and lack of economic prospects. The emigrants came principally from regions comprising present-day
Rhineland-Palatinate,
Hesse, and northern areas of
Baden-Württemberg along the lower
Neckar. During the so-called
Kleinstaaterei ("small state") period when this emigration occurred, the Middle Rhine region was a patchwork of secular and ecclesiastical principalities, duchies and counties. No more than half of the so-called Palatines originated in the namesake
Electoral Palatinate, with others coming from the surrounding imperial states of
Palatinate-Zweibrücken and
Nassau-Saarbrücken, the
Margraviate of Baden, the Hessian Landgraviates of
Hesse-Darmstadt,
Hesse-Homburg,
Hesse-Kassel, the Archbishoprics of
Trier and
Mainz, and various minor counties of
Nassau,
Sayn,
Solms,
Wied, and
Isenburg.
The Great Palatine Migration of 1709 What triggered the mass emigration in 1709 of mostly impoverished people to England was the Crown's promise of free land in British America.
Parliament discovered in 1711 that several "agents" working on behalf of the
Carolina province had promised the peasants around and South of
Frankfurt free passage to the plantations. Spurred by the success of several dozen families the year before, thousands of German families headed down the Rhine to England and the New World. The first boats packed with refugees began arriving in London in early May 1709. The first 900 people to reach England were given housing, food and supplies by a number of wealthy Englishmen. The immigrants were called "Poor Palatines": "poor" in reference to their pitiful and impoverished state upon arrival in England, and "Palatines" since many of them came from lands controlled by the
Elector Palatine. The majority came from regions around the
Rhenish Palatinate and, against the wishes of their respective rulers, they fled by the thousands on small boats and ships down the Rhine River to the Dutch city of
Rotterdam, whence the majority embarked for London. Throughout the summer, ships unloaded thousands of refugees, and almost immediately their numbers overwhelmed the initial attempts to provide for them. By summer, most of the Poor Palatines were settled in Army tents in the fields of
Blackheath and
Camberwell. A Committee dedicated to coordinating their settlement and dispersal sought ideas for their employment. This proved difficult, as the Poor Palatines were unlike previous migrant groups—skilled, middle-class, religious exiles such as the
Huguenots or the Dutch in the 16th century—but rather were unskilled rural laborers, neither sufficiently educated nor healthy enough for most types of employment.
Political controversy During the reign of
Queen Anne (1702–1714), political polarization increased. Immigration and asylum had long been debated, from coffee-houses to the floor of Parliament, and the Poor Palatines were inevitably brought into the political crossfire. For the
Whigs, who controlled Parliament, these immigrants provided an opportunity to increase Britain's workforce. Only two months before the German influx, Parliament had enacted the
Foreign Protestants Naturalization Act 1708, whereby foreign Protestants could pay a small fee to become naturalized. The rationale was the belief that an increased population created more wealth, and that Britain's prosperity could increase with the accommodation of certain foreigners. Britain had already benefited from French Huguenot refugees, as well as the Dutch (or "Flemish") exiles, who helped revolutionize the English textile industry. Similarly, in an effort to increase the sympathy and support for these refugees, many Whig tracts and pamphlets described the Palatines as "refugees of conscience" and victims of Catholic oppression and intolerance.
Louis XIV of France had become infamous for the persecution of Protestants within his realm. The invasion and destruction of the Rhineland region by his forces was considered by many in Britain as a sign that the Palatines were likewise objects of his religious tyranny. With royal support, the Whigs formulated a charity brief to raise money for the "Poor Distressed Palatines", who had grown too numerous to be supported by the Crown alone. The
Tories and members of the
High Church Party (those who sought greater religious uniformity), were dismayed by the numbers of Poor Palatines amassing in the fields of southeast London. Long-standing opponents of naturalization, the Tories condemned the Whig assertions that the immigrants would be beneficial to the economy, as they were already an acute financial burden. Similarly, many who worried for the security of the
Church of England were concerned about the religious affiliations of these German families, especially after it was revealed that many (perhaps more than 2,000) were Catholic. Although the majority of the
Catholic Palatines were immediately sent back across the English Channel, many English thought their presence disproved the claimed religious refugee status of the Poor Palatines. The author
Daniel Defoe was a major spokesman, who attacked the critics of the government's policy. Defoe's
Review, a tri-weekly journal dealing usually with economic matters, was for two months dedicated to denouncing opponents’ claims that the Palatines were disease-ridden, Catholic bandits who had arrived in England "to eat the Bread out of the Mouths of our People." In addition to dispelling rumors and propounding the benefits of an increased population, Defoe advanced his own ideas of how the Poor Palatines should be "disposed".
Dispersal Not long after the Palatines' arrival, the
Board of Trade was charged with finding a means for their dispersal. Contrary to the desires of the immigrants, who wanted to be transported to British America, most schemes involved settling them within the British Isles, either on uninhabited lands in England or in Ireland (where they could bolster the numbers of the Protestant minority). Most officials involved were reluctant to send the Palatines to America due to the cost, and to the belief that they would be more beneficial if kept in Britain. Since the majority of the Poor Palatines were husbandmen, vinedressers and laborers, the English felt that they would be better suited in agricultural areas. There were some attempts to disperse them in neighboring towns and cities. Ultimately, large-scale settlement plans came to nothing, and the government sent Palatines piecemeal to various regions in England and Ireland. These attempts mostly failed, and many of the Palatines returned from Ireland to London within a few months, in far worse condition than when they had left. The commissioners finally acquiesced and sent numerous families to New York to produce naval stores at camps along the Hudson River. The Palatines transported to New York in the summer of 1710 totaled about 2800 people in ten ships, the largest group of immigrants to enter British America before the
American Revolution. Because of their refugee status and weakened condition, as well as shipboard diseases, they had a high rate of fatalities. They were kept in quarantine on an island in New York harbor until ship's diseases had run their course. Another 300-some Palatines reached Carolina. Despite the ultimate failure of the Naval stores effort and delays on granting them land in settled areas (they were given grants on the frontiers), they had reached the New World and were determined to stay. Their descendants are scattered across the United States and Canada. The experience with the Poor Palatines discredited the Whig philosophy of naturalization, and figured in political debates as an example of the pernicious effects of offering asylum to refugees. Once the Tories returned to power, they retracted the Act of Naturalization, which they claimed had lured the Palatines to England (though few had in fact become naturalized). Later attempts to reinstate an Act for Naturalization would suffer from the tarnished legacy of Britain's first attempt to support mass immigration of foreign-born peoples.
Re-settlement in Ireland In 1709, some 3,073 Palatines were transported to Ireland. Some 538 families were settled as agricultural tenants on the estates of
Anglo-Irish landlords. However, many of the settlers failed to permanently establish themselves and 352 families were reported to have left their holdings, with many returning to England. By late 1711 only around 1,200 of the Palatines remained in Ireland. More than 3,500 of these were returned from England either because they were
Roman Catholic or at their own request.
Henry Z Jones, Jr. quotes an entry in a churchbook by the Pastor of
Dreieichenhain that states a total of 15,313 Palatines left their villages in 1709 "for the so-called New America and, of course, Carolina". The flood of immigration overwhelmed English resources. It resulted in major disruptions, overcrowding,
famine, disease and the death of a thousand or more Palatines. It appeared the entire Palatinate would be emptied before a halt could be called to emigration. Many reasons have been given to explain why so many families left their homes for an unknown land. Knittle summarizes them: "(1) war devastation, (2) heavy
taxation, (3) an
extraordinarily severe winter, (4) religious quarrels, but not persecutions, (5) land hunger on the part of the elderly and desire for adventure on the part of the young, (6) liberal advertising by colonial proprietors, and finally (7) the benevolent and active cooperation of the British government." No doubt the biggest impetus was the harsh, cold winter that preceded their departure. Birds froze in mid-air, casks of wine, livestock, and whole vineyards were destroyed by the unremitting cold. With what little was left of their possessions, the refugees made their way on boats down the Rhine to Amsterdam, where they remained until the British government decided what to do about them. Ships were finally dispatched for them across the
English Channel, and the Palatines arrived in London, where they waited longer while the British government considered its options. So many arrived that the government created a winter camp for them outside the
city walls. A few were settled in England, a few more may have been sent to
Jamaica and
Nassau, but the greatest numbers were sent to Ireland, Carolina and especially, New York in the summer of 1710. They were obligated to work off their passage. The Reverend
Joshua Kocherthal paved the way in 1709, with a small group of fifty who settled in
Newburgh, New York, on the banks of the
Hudson River. "In the summer of 1710, a colony numbering 2,227 arrived in New York and were [later] located in five villages on either side of the Hudson, those upon the east side being designated as East Camp, and those upon the west, as West Camp." A census of these villages on 1 May 1711 showed 1194 on the east side and 583 on the west side. The total number of families was 342 and 185, respectively. About 350 Palatines had remained in New York City, and some settled in New Jersey. Others travelled down the Susquehanna River, settling in
Berks County, Pennsylvania. The locations of the New Jersey communities correlate with the foundation of the oldest Lutheran churches in that state, i.e., the first called Zion at New Germantown (now
Oldwick),
Hunterdon County; the 'Straw Church' now called
St. James at Greenwich Township, Sussex (now
Pohatong Township,
Warren County); and St. Paul's at
Pluckemin,
Bedminster Township,
Somerset County.
Indentured servitude (13 December 1654 – 1 October 1728) was a
New York colonial official and first lord of
Livingston Manor. Settlement by Palatines on the east side (East Camp) of the
Hudson River was accomplished as a result of Governor Hunter's negotiations with
Robert Livingston, who owned
Livingston Manor in what is now
Columbia County, New York (unrelated to
Livingston Manor on the west side of the Hudson River). Livingston was anxious to have his lands developed. The Livingstons benefited for many years from the revenues they received as a result of this business venture. West Camp, on the other hand, was located on land the Crown had recently "repossessed" as an "extravagant grant". Pastors from both
Lutheran and
Reformed churches quickly began to serve the camps and created extensive records of these early settlers and their life passages long before the state of New York was established or kept records. The
British Crown believed that the Palatines could work and be "useful to this kingdom, particularly in the production of naval stores, and as a frontier against the French and their Indians". Naval stores which the British needed were
hemp,
tar and
pitch, poor choices given the climate and the variety of
pine trees in
New York State. On 6 September 1712, work was halted. "The last day of the government subsistence for most of the Palatines was September 12th." "Within the next five years, many Palatines moved elsewhere. Several went to
Pennsylvania, others to
New Jersey, settling at Oldwick or
Hackensack, still others pushed a few miles south to
Rhinebeck, New York, and some returned to New York City, while quite a few established themselves on Livingston Manor [where they had originally been settled]. Some forty or fifty families went to
Schoharie between September 12th and October 31, 1712." In the winter of 1712–13, six Palatines approached the
Mohawk clan mothers to ask for permission to settle in the Schoharie River valley, a tributary of the Mohawk River. The clan mothers, moved by the story of their misery and suffering, granted the Palatines permission to settle; in the spring of 1713 about 150 Palatine families moved into the Schoharie valley. The Palatines had not understood that the
Haudenosaunee were a matrilineal kinship society, and that the clan mothers had considerable power. They headed the nine
clans that made up the Five Nations. The Palatines had expected to meet male sachems rather than these women, but property and descent were passed through the maternal lines.
Resettlement , Governor of
New York and
New Jersey. A report in 1718 placed 224 families of 1,021 persons along the
Hudson River while 170 families of 580 persons were in the Schoharie valley. In 1723, under
Governor Burnet, 100 heads of families from the work camps were settled on each in the Burnetsfield Patent midway in the
Mohawk River Valley, just west of Little Falls. They were the first
Europeans to be allowed to buy land that far west in the valley. After hearing Palatine accounts of poverty and suffering, the clan mothers granted permission for them to settle in the Schoharie Valley. Historians referred to the Haudenosaunee who moved to New France as the Canadian
Iroquois, while those who remained behind are described as the League Iroquois. At the beginning of the 17th century, about 2,000 Mohawk lived in the Mohawk River Valley, but by the beginning of the 18th century, the population had dropped to about 600 people. They were in a weakened position for resisting encroachment by English settlers. The Palatine communities gradually extended along both sides of the
Mohawk River to
Canajoharie. Their legacy was reflected in place names, such as
German Flatts and
Palatine Bridge, and the few colonial-era churches and other buildings that survived the Revolution. They taught their children German and used the language in churches for nearly 100 years. Many Palatines married only within the German community until the 19th century. The Palatines settled on the frontiers of New York province in Kanienkeh ("the land of the flint"), the homeland of the Five Nations of the
Iroquois League (becoming the Six Nations when the
Tuscarora joined the League in 1722) in what is now upstate New York, and formed a very close relationship with the Iroquois. The American historian
David L. Preston described the lives of the Palatine community as being "interwoven" with the Iroquois communities. One Palatine leader said about the relationship of his community with the Haudenosauee that: "We intend to live our lifetime together as brothers". There were also a number of intermarriages between the two communities. Some Palatines learned to perform the Haudenosaunee
condolence ceremony, where condolences were offered to those whose friends and family had died, which was the most important of all Iroquois rituals. The New York frontier had no equivalent to the
Paxton Boys, a vigilante group of Scots-Irish settlers on the Pennsylvania frontier who waged a near-genocidal campaign against the
Susquehannock Indians in 1763–64, and the news of the killing perpetrated by the Paxton Boys was received with horror by both whites and Indians on the New York frontier.
Palatines during the French and Indian War (1754–1763) Despite the intentions of the British, the Palatines showed little inclination to fight for the British Crown, and during
French and Indian War, tried to maintain neutrality. After the
Battle of Fort Bull and the
Fall of Fort Oswego to the French, German Flatts and Fort Herkimer become the northern frontier of the British Empire in North America, causing the British Army to rush regiments to the frontier. One Palatine, Hans Josef Herkimer, complained about the British troops in his vicinity in a letter written in broken English to the authorities: "Tieranniece [tyranny] over me they think proper ... Not only Infesting my House and taking my rooms at their pleashure [pleasure] but takes what they think Nesserarie [necessary] of my Effects". An Oneida Indian passed on a message to Vaudreuil in Quebec City, saying: "We inform you of a message given to us by a Nation that is neither English, nor French nor Indian and inhabits the lands around us ... That Nation has proposed to annex us to itself in order to afford each other mutual help and protection against the English". On 10 November 1757, the Oneida sachem
Canaghquiesa warned the Palatines that a force of French and Indigenous combatants were on their way to attack, telling them that their women and children should head for the nearest fort, but Canaghquiesa noted that they "laughed at me and slapping their hands on their Buttucks [buttocks] said they did not value the Enemy". On 12 November 1757, a raiding party of about 200 Mississauga and Canadian Iroquois warriors together with 65 and militiamen fell on the settlement of German Flatts at about 3:00 am, burning the town down to the ground, killing about 40 Palatines while taking 150 back to New France. One Palatine leader, Johan Jost Petri, writing from his prison in Montreal, complained about how "our people have been taken by the Indians and the French (but for the most part by our own Indians) and by our own fault". Afterwards, a group of Oneida and Tuscaroras came to the ruins of the German Flatts to offer food and shelter for the survivors and to bury the dead. The only existing Pennsylvania German newspaper,
Hiwwe wie Driwwe, was founded in Germany in 1996 in the village of
Ober-Olm, which is located close to
Mainz, the state capital and is published bi-annually as a cooperation project with
Kutztown University of Pennsylvania. In the same village one can find the headquarters of the German-Pennsylvanian Association. ==Palatine migration in the 19th century==