Glottalization

Glottalization varies along three parameters, all of which are continuums. The degree of glottalization varies from none (modal voice, ) through stiff voice () and creaky voice () to full glottal closure (glottal reinforcement or glottal replacement, described below). The timing also varies, from a simultaneous single segment to an onset or coda such as or to a sequence such as or . Full or partial closure of the glottis also allows glottalic airstream mechanisms to operate, producing ejective or implosive consonants; implosives may themselves have modal, stiff, or creaky voice. It is not always clear from linguistic descriptions if a language has a series of light ejectives or voiceless consonants with glottal reinforcement, or similarly if it has a series of light implosives or voiced consonants with glottal reinforcement. The airstream parameter is only known to be relevant to obstruents, but the first two are involved with both obstruents and sonorants, including vowels. ==Glottal replacement==

Glottal replacement, or glottaling, is when a phoneme is completely substituted by a glottal stop . This is very common in British English dialects such as Cockney and Estuary English. In those dialects, the glottal stop is an allophone of , and word-finally and when followed by an unstressed vowel (including syllabic and ) in a post-stress syllable. 'Water' can be pronounced – the glottal stop has superseded the 't' sound. Other examples include "city" , "bottle" , "Britain" , "seniority" . In some consonant clusters, glottal replacement of is common even among speakers of RP. Geordie English has a unique form of glottalization involving glottal reinforcement of , and , for example in "happy", "matter" and "lucky". Those sounds between vowels are pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop represented in IPA as ⟨⟩, ⟨⟩ and ⟨⟩⟩. Glottal replacement occurs in Indonesian in which syllable final is produced as a glottal stop. In all Gorontalic languages except Buol and Kaidipang, *k was replaced by a glottal stop, even word-initially, except when it followed *ŋ (*kayu → Gorontalo , *konuku → ). In Hawaiian, the glottal stop is reconstructed to have come from other Proto-Polynesian consonants. The following table displays the shift → , as well as the one → : } Glottal replacement is not purely a feature of consonants. Yaneshaʼ has three vowel qualities (, and ) that have phonemic contrasts between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. While the latter generally consists of creaky phonation, there is some allophony involved. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs (especially before voiced consonants) ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: ('deer') → . ==Glottal reinforcement==

Pre-glottalization, or glottal reinforcement, is when a phoneme is accompanied (either sequentially or simultaneously) by a or a . English This is common in some varieties of English, RP included; and are the most affected, but and also regularly show pre-glottalization. In the English dialects exhibiting pre-glottalization, the consonants in question are usually glottalized in the coda position: "what" , "fiction" , "milkman" , "opera" . To a certain extent, some varieties of English have free variation between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement. Low Saxon Glottal reinforcement is present in some varieties of Low Saxon, most notably in Twents. It usually denotes syllable reduction and can be heard before plosives: can in its most extreme form be reduced to . ==See also==