Gram stain

The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but to make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue. Gram noticed that some bacterial cells possessed noticeable resistance to decolorization. Based on these observations, Gram developed the initial gram staining procedure, initially making use of Ehrlich's aniline-gentian violet, Lugol's iodine, absolute alcohol for decolorization, and Bismarck brown for counterstain. He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain. Gram did not initially make the distinction between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria using his procedure. == Uses ==

'' from a vaginal swab. The small oval chlamydospores are 2–4 μm in diameter. Gram staining is a bacteriological laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (gram-positive and gram-negative) based on the physical properties of their cell walls. Gram staining can also be used to diagnose a fungal infection. Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected. Gram stains yield results much more quickly than culturing, and are especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis. == Staining mechanism ==

(left) and pink-stained gram-negative (right) Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50–90% of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain: • Applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture. Heat fixation kills some bacteria but is mostly used to affix the bacteria to the slide so that they do not rinse out during the staining procedure. • The addition of iodine, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell • Rapid decolorization with ethanol or acetone • Counterstaining with safranin. Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, but it is less commonly used as a counterstain. Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into and chloride () ions. These ions penetrate the cell wall of both gram-positive and gram-negative cells. The ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple. Iodide ( or ) interacts with and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV–I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore, colors the cell. When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane. A gram-negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV–I complexes are washed from the gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane. In contrast, a gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV–I complexes become trapped within the gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan. After decolorization, the gram-positive cell remains purple and the gram-negative cell loses its purple color. Both gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria pick up the counterstain. The counterstain, however, is unseen on gram-positive bacteria because of the darker crystal violet stain. == Examples ==

Gram-positive bacteria streptococci surrounded by pus cells Gram-positive bacteria generally have a single membrane (monoderm) surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan. This rule is followed by two phyla: Bacillota (except for the classes Mollicutes and Negativicutes) and the Actinomycetota. In contrast, members of the Chloroflexota (green non-sulfur bacteria) are monoderms but possess a thin or absent (class Dehalococcoidetes) peptidoglycan and can stain negative, positive or indeterminate; members of the Deinococcota stain positive but are diderms with a thick peptidoglycan. Historically, the gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Clostridium. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma that lack cell walls and so cannot be Gram-stained, but are derived from such forms. Some bacteria have cell walls which are particularly adept at retaining stains. These will appear positive by Gram stain even though they are not closely related to other gram-positive bacteria. These are called acid-fast bacteria, and can only be differentiated from other gram-positive bacteria by special staining procedures. Gram-negative bacteria and pus cells Gram-negative bacteria generally possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two membranes (diderm). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the most abundant antigen on the cell surface of most gram-negative bacteria, contributing up to 80% of the outer membrane of E. coli and Salmonella. These LPS molecules, consisting of the O-antigen or O-polysaccharide, core polysaccharide, and lipid A, serve multiple functions including contributing to the cell's negative charge and protecting against certain chemicals. LPS's role is critical in host-pathogen interactions, with the O-antigen eliciting an immune response and lipid A acting as an endotoxin. In cultures of Bacillus, Butyrivibrio, and Clostridium, a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain gram-negative. Bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma lack a cell wall around their cell membranes, which means they do not stain by Gram's method and are resistant to the antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. == Orthographic note ==

The term Gram staining is derived from the surname of Hans Christian Gram; the eponym (Gram) is therefore capitalized but not the common noun (stain) as is usual for scientific terms. The initial letters of gram-positive and gram-negative, which are eponymous adjectives, can be either capital G or lowercase g, depending on what style guide (if any) governs the document being written. Lowercase style is used by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other style regimens such as the AMA style. Dictionaries may use lowercase, uppercase, or both. Uppercase Gram-positive or Gram-negative usage is also common in many scientific journal articles and publications. When articles are submitted to journals, each journal may or may not apply house style to the postprint version. Preprint versions contain whichever style the author happened to use. Even style regimens that use lowercase for the adjectives gram-positive and gram-negative still typically use capital for Gram stain. == See also ==