showing Khorasan east of the province of
Jibal.
Ancient era During the Sasanian era, likely in the reign of
Khusrow I, Persia was divided into four regions (known as in Middle Persian),
Khwārvarān in the west, apāxtar in the north, nīmrūz in the south and Khorasan in the east. Since the Sasanian territories were more or less remained stable up to Islamic conquests, it can be concluded that Sasanian Khorasan was bordered to the south by Sistan and Kerman, to the west by the central deserts of modern Iran, and to the east by China and India. In the Sasanian era, Khorasan was further divided into four smaller regions, and each region was ruled by a
marzban. These four regions were Nishapur, Marv, Herat and Balkh.
Medieval era The first movement against the Arab conquest was led by
Abu Muslim Khorasani between 747 and 750. Originally from
Isfahan, scholars believe Abu Muslim was probably Persian. It's possible he may have been born a slave. According to the ancient Persian historian
Al-Shahrastani, he was a
Kaysanite. This revolutionary
Shi'a movement rejected the three Caliphs that had preceded
Ali. Abu Muslim helped the
Abbasids come to power but was later killed by Al-Mansur, an Abbasid Caliph. The first kingdom independent from Arab rule was established in Khorasan by
Tahir Phoshanji in 821, but it seems that it was more a matter of political and territorial gain. Tahir had helped the Caliph subdue other nationalistic movements in other parts of Persia such as
Maziar's movement in
Tabaristan. Other major independent dynasties who ruled over Khorasan were the
Saffarids from
Zaranj (861–1003),
Samanids from
Bukhara (875–999),
Ghaznavids from
Ghazni (963–1167),
Seljuqs (1037–1194),
Khwarezmids (1077–1231),
Ghurids (1149–1212), and
Timurids (1370–1506). In 1221,
Genghis Khan's son
Tolui oversaw the
Mongol subjugation of Khorasan, carrying out the task "with a thoroughness from which that region has never recovered." Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century, the majority of Islamic archaeological efforts were focused on the medieval era, predominantly in areas near what is today
Central Asia. In late 651, the Rashidun army defeated the combined forces of the Sasanian and the
First Turkic Khaganate in the
Battle of the Oxus River. The next year, Ibn Amir concluded a peace treaty with
Kanadbak, an Iranian nobleman and the
kanarang of
Tus. The Sasanian rebel
Burzin Shah, of the
Karen family, revolted against Ibn Amir, though the latter crushed the rebels in the
Battle of Nishapur.
Umayyad era (661–750) After the invasion of Persia under Rashidun was completed in five years and almost all of the Persian territories came under Arab control, it also inevitable created new problems for the caliphate. Pockets of tribal resistance continued for centuries in the
Afghan territories. During the 7th century,
Arab armies made their way into the region of Afghanistan from Khorasan. A second problem was as a corollary to the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Muslims became neighbors of the city states of
Transoxiana. Although Transoxiana was included in the loosely defined "Turkestan" region, only the ruling elite of Transoxiana was partially of Turkic origins whereas the local population was mostly a diverse mix of local Iranian populations. As the Arabs reached Transoxiana following the conquest of the Sassanid Persian Empire, local Iranian-Turkic and Arab armies clashed over the control of Transoxiana's Silk Road cities. In particular, the Turgesh under the leadership of Suluk, and Khazars under Barjik clashed with their Arab neighbours in order to control this economically important region. Two notable Umayyad generals,
Qutayba ibn Muslim and
Nasr ibn Sayyar, were instrumental in the eventual conquest. In July 738, at the age of 74,
Nasr was appointed as governor of Khorasan. Despite his age, he was widely respected both for his military record, his knowledge of the affairs of Khorasan and his abilities as a statesman.
Julius Wellhausen wrote of him that "His age did not affect the freshness of his mind, as is testified not only by his deeds, but also by the verses in which he gave expression to his feelings till the very end of his life". However, in the climate of the times, his nomination owed more to his appropriate tribal affiliation than his personal qualities. In 724, immediately after the rise of
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) to the throne, Asad's brother
Khalid al-Qasri was appointed to the important post of
governor of Iraq, with responsibility over the entire Islamic East, which he held until 738. Khalid in turn named Asad as governor of Khorasan. The two brothers thus became, according to
Patricia Crone, "among the most prominent men of the Marwanid period". Asad's arrival in Khorasan found the province in peril: his predecessor,
Muslim ibn Sa'id al-Kilabi, had just attempted a campaign against
Ferghana and suffered a major defeat, the so-called "
Day of Thirst", at the hands of the
Turgesh Turks and the
Soghdian principalities of
Transoxiana that had risen up against Muslim rule. From the early days of the
Muslim conquests, Arab armies were divided into regiments drawn from individual tribes or tribal confederations (
butun or '''asha'ir
). Despite the fact that many of these groupings were recent creations, created for reasons of military efficiency rather than any common ancestry, they soon developed a strong and distinct identity. By the beginning of the Umayyad period, this system progressed to the formation of ever-larger super-groupings, culminating in the two super-groups: the northern Arab Mudaris or Qaysis, and the south Arabs or "Yemenis" (Yaman''), dominated by the Azd and
Rabi'ah tribes. By the 8th century, this division had become firmly established across the Caliphate and was a source of constant internal instability, as the two groups formed in essence two rival political parties, jockeying for power and separated by a fierce hatred for each other. During
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik's reign, the Umayyad government appointed Mudaris as governors in Khorasan, except for Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri's tenure in 735–738. Nasr's appointment came four months after Asad's death. In the interim, the sources report variously that the province was run either by the
Syrian general Ja'far ibn Hanzala al-Bahrani or by Asad's lieutenant Juday' al-Kirmani. At any rate, the sources agree that al-Kirmani stood at the time as the most prominent man in Khorasan and should have been the clear choice for governor. His Yemeni roots (he was the leader of the Azd in Khorasan), however, made him unpalatable to the Caliph.
Abbasid era (750–861) Khorasan became the headquarters of the
Abbasid Revolution against the
Umayyads. It was led by
Abu Muslim, who himself belonged to Khorasan. This province was part of the Iranian world that had been heavily colonised by Arab tribes following the
Muslim conquest with the intent of replacing Umayyad dynasty which is proved to be successful under the sign of the
Black Standard.
Modern era in 1909 Between the early 16th and early 18th centuries, parts of Khorasan were contested between the
Safavids and the
Uzbeks. A part of the Khorasan region was conquered in 1722 by the
Ghilji Pashtuns from
Kandahar and became part of the
Hotaki dynasty from 1722 to 1729.
Nader Shah recaptured Khorasan in 1729 and chose
Mashhad as the capital of Persia. Following his assassination in 1747, the eastern parts of Khorasan, including
Herat were annexed with the
Durrani Empire. Mashhad area was under control of Nader Shah's grandson
Shahrukh Afshar until it was captured by the
Qajar dynasty in 1796. In 1856, the Iranians, under the Qajar dynasty, briefly recaptured Herat; by the
Treaty of Paris of 1857, signed between Iran and the British Empire to end the
Anglo-Persian War, the Iranian troops withdrew from
Herat. Later, in 1881, Iran relinquished its claims to a part of the northern areas of Khorasan to the
Russian Empire, principally comprising
Merv, by the
Treaty of Akhal (also known as the
Treaty of Akhal-Khorasan). == Cultural importance ==