History In the 19th century, Persian literature experienced dramatic change and entered a new era. The beginning of this change was exemplified by an incident in the mid-19th century at the court of
Nasereddin Shah, when the reform-minded prime minister,
Amir Kabir, chastised the poet
Habibollah Qa'ani Shirazi for "lying" in a panegyric qasida written in Kabir's honor. Kabir saw poetry in general and the type of poetry that had developed during the Qajar period as detrimental to "progress" and "modernization" in Iranian society, which he believed was in dire need of change. Such concerns were also expressed by others such as
Fath-'Ali Akhundzadeh,
Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani, and
Mirza Malkom Khan. Khan also addressed a need for a change in Persian poetry in literary terms as well, always linking it to social concerns. '') The new Persian literary movement cannot be understood without an understanding of the
intellectual movements among Iranian philosophical circles. Given the social and political climate of Persia (Iran) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which led to the
Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906–1911, the idea that change in poetry was necessary became widespread. Many argued that Persian poetry should reflect the realities of a country in transition. This idea was propagated by notable literary figures such as
Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda and
Abolqasem Aref, who challenged the traditional system of Persian poetry in terms of introducing new content and experimentation with rhetoric, lexico-semantics, and structure. Dehkhoda, for instance, used a lesser-known traditional form, the mosammat, to elegize the execution of a revolutionary journalist. 'Aref employed the ghazal, "the most central genre within the lyrical tradition" (p. 88), to write his "Payam-e Azadi" (Message of Freedom). Some researchers argue that the notion of "sociopolitical ramifications of esthaetic changes" led to the idea of poets "as social leaders trying the limits and possibilities of social change". An important movement in modern Persian literature centered on the question of
modernization and
Westernization and whether these terms are synonymous when describing the evolution of Iranian society. It can be argued that almost all advocates of modernism in Persian literature, from Akhundzadeh, Kermani, and Malkom Khan to Dehkhoda, Aref, Bahar, and
Taqi Rafat, were inspired by developments and changes that had occurred in Western, particularly European, literatures. Such inspirations did not mean blindly copying Western models but, rather, adapting aspects of Western literature and changing them to fit the needs of Iranian culture. Following the pioneering works of
Ahmad Kasravi,
Sadeq Hedayat and many others, the Iranian wave of comparative literature and literary criticism reached a symbolic crest with the emergence of
Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub,
Shahrokh Meskoob,
Houshang Golshiri and
Ebrahim Golestan.
In Afghanistan Persian literature in Afghanistan has also experienced a dramatic change during the last century. At the beginning of the 20th century, Afghanistan was confronted with economic and social change, which sparked a new approach to literature. In 1911,
Mahmud Tarzi, who came back to Afghanistan after years of exile in Turkey and was influential in government circles, started a fortnightly publication named
Saraj’ul Akhbar.
Saraj was not the first such publication in the country, but in the field of journalism and literature it launched a new period of change and modernization.
Saraj not only played an important role in journalism, it also gave new life to literature as a whole and opened the way for poetry to explore new avenues of expression through which personal thoughts took on a more social colour. In 1930 (1309 AH), after months of cultural stagnation, a group of writers founded the Herat Literary Circle. A year later, another group calling itself the Kabul Literary Circle was founded in the capital. Both groups published regular magazines dedicated to culture and Persian literature. Both, especially the Kabul publication, had little success in becoming venues for modern Persian poetry and writing. In time, the Kabul publication turned into a stronghold for traditional writers and poets, and modernism in
Dari literature was pushed to the fringes of social and cultural life. Two of the most prominent classical poets in Afghanistan at the time were
Abdul Haq Betab and
Khalil Ullah Khalili. Betab received the honorary title
Malek ul Shoara (King of Poets). Khalili was drawn toward the
Khorasan style of poetry instead of the usual
Hendi style. He was also interested in modern poetry and wrote a few poems in a more modern style with new aspects of thought and meaning. In 1318 (AH), after two poems by
Nima Youshij titled "Gharab" and "Ghoghnus" were published, Khalili wrote a poem under the name "Sorude Kuhestan" or "The Song of the Mountain" in the same rhyming pattern as Nima and sent it to the Kabul Literary Circle. The traditionalists in Kabul refused to publish it because it was not written in the traditional rhyme. They criticized Khalili for modernizing his style. Very gradually new styles found their way into literature and literary circles despite the efforts of traditionalists. The first book of new poems was published in the year 1957 (1336 AH), and in 1962 (1341 AH), a collection of modern Persian (Dari) poetry was published in Kabul. The first group to write poems in the new style consisted of
Mahmud Farani,
Baregh Shafi’i,
Solayman Layeq, Sohail,
Ayeneh and a few others. Later,
Vasef Bakhtari,
Asadullah Habib and
Latif Nazemi, and others joined the group. Each had his own share in modernizing Persian poetry in Afghanistan. Other notable figures include
Leila Sarahat Roshani,
Sayed Elan Bahar,
Parwin Pazwak, and
Qahar Asi. Poets like
Mayakovsky,
Yase Nien and
Lahouti (an Iranian poet living in exile in Russia) exerted a special influence on the Persian poets in Afghanistan. The influence of Iranians (e.g.
Farrokhi Yazdi and
Ahmad Shamlou) on the newly established Afghan prose and poetry, especially in the second half of the 20th century, must also be taken into consideration. Prominent novelists and short story writers from Afghanistan include
Akram Osman, known especially for
Real Men Keep Their Word (مرداره قول اس), written in part in
Kabuli dialect, and
Rahnaward Zaryab. Some prominent writers from Afghanistan like
Asef Soltanzadeh,
Reza Ebrahimi, Ameneh Mohammadi, and
Abbas Jafari grew up in Iran and were influenced by Iranian writers and teachers.
In Tajikistan The new poetry in Tajikistan is mostly concerned with the way of life of people and is revolutionary. From the 1950s until the advent of new poetry in France, Asia and Latin America, the impact of the modernization drive was strong. In the 1960s, modern Iranian poetry and that of
Mohammad Iqbal Lahouri made a profound impression in Tajik poetry. This period is probably the richest and most prolific period for the development of themes and forms in Persian poetry in Tajikistan. Some Tajik poets were mere imitators, and one can easily see the traits of foreign poets in their work. Only two or three poets were able to digest the foreign poetry and compose original poetry. In Tajikistan, the format and pictorial aspects of short stories and novels were taken from Russian and other European literature. Some of
Tajikistan's prominent names in Persian literature are
Golrokhsar Safi Eva,
Mo'men Ghena'at,
Farzaneh Khojandi,
Bozor Sobir, and
Layeq Shir-Ali.
Play Among the best-known playwrights are: •
Bahram Beyzai •
Akbar Radi •
Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi •
Esmaeel Khalaj •
Ali Nassirian •
Mirza Aqa Tabrizi •
Bijan Mofid Novel Well-known novelists include: •
Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh •
Sadeq Hedayat •
Sadeq Chubak •
Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi •
Ahmad Mahmoud •
Jalal Al-e-Ahmad •
Simin Daneshvar •
Bozorg Alavi •
Ebrahim Golestan •
Bahman Sholevar •
Mahmoud Dowlatabadi •
Bahram Sadeghi •
Ghazaleh Alizadeh •
Bahman Forsi •
Houshang Golshiri •
Reza Baraheni •
Abbas Maroufi •
Reza Ghassemi •
Zoya Pirzad •
Shahriyar Mandanipour • Abutorab Khosravi •
Nazi Safavi Satire •
Dehkhoda •
Iraj Mirza •
Kioumars Saberi Foumani •
Obeid Zakani •
Ebrahim Nabavi •
Hadi Khorsandi •
Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi •
Javad Alizadeh • Emran Salahi
Literary criticism Pioneers of Persian literary criticism in 19th century include
Mirza Fath `Ali Akhundzade,
Mirza Malkom Khan,
Mirza `Abd al-Rahim Talebof and
Zeyn al-`Abedin Maraghe`i. Prominent 20th century critics include: •
Jamshid Behnam • Allameh
Dehkhoda •
Badiozzaman Forouzanfar •
Mohammad-Taqi Bahar •
Jalal Homaei •
Mohammad Moin •
Saeed Nafisi •
Parviz Natel-Khanlari •
Sadeq Hedayat •
Ahmad Kasravi. •
Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub •
Shahrokh Meskoob •
Ali Abdolrezaei Saeed Nafisi analyzed and edited several critical works. He is well known for his works on
Rudaki and Sufi literature.
Parviz Natel-Khanlari and
Gholamhossein Yousefi, who belong to Nafisi's generation, were also involved in modern literature and critical writings. Contemporary Persian
literary criticism reached its maturity after
Sadeq Hedayat,
Ebrahim Golestan,
Houshang Golshiri,
Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub and
Shahrokh Meskoob. Among these figures, Zarrinkoub held academic positions and had a reputation not only among the intelligentsia but also in academia. Besides his significant contribution to the maturity of Persian language and literature, Zarrinkoub boosted
comparative literature and Persian literary criticism. Zarrinkoub's
Serr e Ney is a critical and comparative analysis of Rumi's
Masnavi. In turn,
Shahrokh Meskoob worked on Ferdowsi's
Shahnameh, using the principles of modern literary criticism.
Mohammad Taghi Bahar's main contribution to this field is his book called
Sabk Shenasi (Stylistics). It is a pioneering work on the practice of Persian literary historiography and the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the 20th century. It contends that the exemplary status of Sabk-shinasi rests on the recognition of its disciplinary or institutional achievements. It further contends that, rather than a text on Persian ‘stylistics’, Sabk-shinasi is a vast history of Persian literary prose, and, as such, is a significant intervention in Persian literary historiography.
Jalal Homaei,
Badiozzaman Forouzanfar and his student,
Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani, are other notable figures who have edited a number of prominent literary works.
Persian short stories Historically, the
modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.
Period of diversity In this period, the influence of the western literature on the Iranian writers and authors is obvious. The new and modern approaches to writing is introduced and several genres have developed specially in the field of short story. The most popular trends are toward
post-modern methods and
speculative fiction.
Poetry Notable Persian poets, modern and classical, include
Mehdi Akhavan-Sales,
Simin Behbahani,
Forough Farrokhzad,
Mohammad Zohari,
Bijan Jalali,
Mina Assadi,
Siavash Kasraie,
Fereydoon Moshiri,
Nader Naderpour,
Sohrab Sepehri,
Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani,
Ahmad Shamlou,
Nima Yushij,
Houshang Ebtehaj,
Mirzadeh Eshghi (classical),
Mohammad Taghi Bahar (classical),
Aref Ghazvini (classical),
Ahmad NikTalab (new classic),
Parvin Etesami (classical),
Shahriar (classical) and,
Ali Abdolrezaei (Post Modernism and New Post Modernism),
Babak NikTalab (Children's poetry).
Classical Persian poetry in modern times A few notable classical poets have arisen since the 19th century, among whom Mohammad Taghi Bahar and Parvin Etesami have been most celebrated. Mohammad Taghi Bahar had the title "king of poets" and had a significant role in the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the 20th century. The theme of his poems was the social and political situation of Iran. Parvin Etesami may be called the greatest Persian woman poet writing in the classical style. One of her remarkable series, called
Mast va Hoshyar (The Drunk and the Sober), won admiration from many of those involved in romantic poetry.
Modern Persian poetry Nima Yushij is considered the father of modern Persian poetry, introducing many techniques and forms to differentiate the modern from the old. Nevertheless, the credit for popularizing this new literary form within a country and culture solidly based on a thousand years of classical poetry goes to his few disciples such as Ahmad Shamlou, who adopted Nima's methods and tried new techniques of modern poetry. The transformation brought about by Nima Youshij, who freed Persian poetry from the fetters of prosodic measures, was a turning point in a long literary tradition. It broadened the perception and thinking of the poets that came after him. Nima offered a different understanding of the principles of classical poetry. His artistry was not confined to removing the need for a fixed-length hemistich and dispensing with the tradition of rhyming but focused on a broader structure and function based on a contemporary understanding of human and social existence. His aim in renovating poetry was to commit it to a "natural identity" and to achieve a modern discipline in the mind and linguistic performance of the poet. Nima held that the formal technique dominating classical poetry interfered with its vitality, vigor and progress. Although he accepted some of its aesthetic properties and extended them in his poetry, he never ceased to widen his poetic experience by emphasizing the "natural order" of this art. What Nima Youshij founded in contemporary poetry, his successor
Ahmad Shamlou continued. The
Sepid poem (which translates to white poem), which draws its sources from this poet, avoided the compulsory rules which had entered the Nimai’ school of poetry and adopted a freer structure. This allowed a more direct relationship between the poet and his or her emotional roots. In previous poetry, the qualities of the poet’s vision as well as the span of the subject could only be expressed in general terms and were subsumed by the formal limitations imposed on poetic expression. Nima’s poetry transgressed these limitations. It relied on the natural function inherent within poetry itself to portray the poet’s solidarity with life and the wide world surrounding him or her in specific and unambiguous details and scenes. Sepid poetry continues the poetic vision as Nima expressed it and avoids the contrived rules imposed on its creation. However, its most distinct difference with Nimai’ poetry is to move away from the rhythms it employed. Nima Youshij paid attention to an overall harmonious rhyming and created many experimental examples to achieve this end. Behbahani herself used the "Char Pareh" style of Nima, and subsequently turned to
ghazal, a free-flowing poetry style similar to the Western sonnet. Simin Behbahani contributed to a historic development in the form of the ghazal, as she added theatrical subjects, and daily events and conversations into her poetry. She has expanded the range of traditional Persian verse forms and produced some of the most significant works of Persian literature in the 20th century. A reluctant follower of Nima Yushij,
Mehdi Akhavan-Sales published his
Organ (1951) to support contentions against Nima Yushij's groundbreaking endeavors. In Persian poetry, Mehdi Akhavan Sales has established a bridge between the
Khorassani and
Nima Schools. The critics consider Mehdi Akhavan Sales as one of the best contemporary Persian poets. He is one of the pioneers of free verse (new style poetry) in Persian literature, particularly of modern style epics. It was his ambition, for a long time, to introduce a fresh style to Persian poetry.
Forough Farrokhzad is important in the literary history of Iran for three reasons. First, she was among the first generation to embrace the new style of poetry, pioneered by Nima Yushij during the 1920s, which demanded that poets experiment with rhyme, imagery, and the individual voice. Second, she was the first modern Iranian woman to graphically articulate private sexual landscapes from a woman's perspective. Finally, she transcended her own literary role and experimented with acting, painting, and documentary film-making.
Fereydoon Moshiri is best known as conciliator of classical Persian poetry with the New Poetry initiated by Nima Yooshij. One of the major contributions of Moshiri's poetry, according to some observers, is the broadening of the social and geographical scope of modern Persian literature. A poet of the last generation before the Islamic Revolution worthy of mention is
Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani (M. Sereshk). Though he is from Khorassan and sways between allegiance to Nima Youshij and Akhavan Saless, in his poetry he shows the influences of Hafiz and Mowlavi. He uses simple, lyrical language and is mostly inspired by the political atmosphere. He is the most successful of those poets who in the past four decades have tried hard to find a synthesis between the two models of Ahmad Shamloo and Nima Youshij. In the twenty-first century, a new generation of Iranian poets continues to work in the New Poetry style and now attracts an international audience thanks to efforts to translate their works. Éditions Bruno Doucey published a selection of forty-eight poems by Garus Abdolmalekian entitled
Our Fists under the Table (2012). translated into French by Farideh Rava. Other notable names are poet and publisher Babak Abazari (1984–2015), who died under mysterious circumstances in January 2015; and emerging young poet Milad Khanmirzaei. == Persian literature awards ==