Hellebore

The common name "hellebore" is first attested in 1300s; it originates, via Old French and Latin, ultimately from . Although traditionally translated as "plant eaten by fawns", this could be folk etymology and, according to Beekes, really a Pre-Greek word. It is not related to the word "hell", despite the toxic nature of this plant. In Anglo-Saxon England, the Anglo-Latin word elleborus had varied meanings. Around 900 AD, it was linked with "tunsingwyrt" (various spellings; likely an Allium species) in the Old English Herbarium. Ælfric of Eynsham seemed to assert that elleborus had no vernacular Old English translation; by the early 11th century, "wodewistle" was used to gloss the word, possibly referring to hemlock or similar. These shifts reflect the developing understanding of Latin plant names in Old English texts. == Description ==

The flowers have five petal-like sepals surrounding a ring of small, cup-like nectaries which are actually petals modified to hold nectar. The sepals do not fall as petals would, but remain on the plant, sometimes for many months. The persistence of the sepals may contribute to the development of the seeds. == Taxonomy ==

The genus was established by Carl Linnaeus in volume one of his Species Plantarum in 1753. The scientific name Helleborus could derive from the Ancient Greek word (), the common name for H. orientalis, constructed from (, "to injure") and (), "food.". It is also possibly from Greek, ἄλκη “fawn”, βιβρώσκω (bibrṓskō, “to eat”). Species and subspecies Twenty-two species are recognised and divided into six sections. The table below shows the species of the genus Helleborus, give its common name, the area of distribution, an image if available and the meaning of the scientific name. The cladogram shows the relationship between the different species determined with microbiological methods by Meiners et al. (2011). provide a very interesting variation to the standard hellebore. They are generally easy to maintain and share the same planting conditions as the standard hellebore. Semi-double flowers have one or two extra rows of petals; doubles have more. Their inner petals are generally very like the outer ones in colour and patterning. They are often of a similar length and shape, though they may be slightly shorter and narrower, and some are attractively waved or ruffled. By contrast, anemone-centred flowers have, cupped within the five normal outer petals, a ring of much shorter, more curved extra petals (sometimes trumpet-shaped, intermediate in appearance between petals and nectaries), which may be a different colour from the outer petals. These short, extra petals (sometimes known as "petaloids") drop off after the flower has been pollinated, leaving an apparently single flower, whereas doubles and semi-doubles tend to retain their extra petals after pollination. Interspecific hybrids Gardeners and nurserymen have also created hybrids between less closely related species. The earliest was probably H. × nigercors, a cross between H.  niger and H. argutifolius (formerly H. lividus subsp. corsicus or H. corsicus, hence the name) first made in 1931. H. × sternii, a cross between H. argutifolius and H. lividus, first exhibited in 1947, is named after the celebrated British plantsman Sir Frederick Stern. H. × ballardiae (H. niger crossed with H. lividus) and H. × ericsmithii (H. niger crossed with H. × sternii) similarly commemorate the noted British nursery owners Helen Ballard and Eric Smith. In recent years, Ashwood Nurseries (of Kingswinford in the English Midlands) has created hybrids between H. niger and H. thibetanus (called H. 'Pink Ice'), and between H. niger and H. vesicarius (called H. 'Briar Rose'). The gardenworthiness of these hybrids has still to be proven. The following hellebore species and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: • H. argutifolius • H. foetidus • H. lividus • H. niger • H. × sternii 'Blackthorn Group' • H. 'Walhero'(PBR) (sometimes listed under H. × hybridus) ==Distribution==

Various species of this genus originated in Europe and Asia. The greatest concentration of species occurs in the Balkans. One atypical species (H. thibetanus) comes from western China; another atypical species (H. vesicarius) inhabits a small area on the border between Turkey and Syria. ==Pests and diseases==

Insects Phytomyza hellebori More commonly known as the Hellebore leaf miner, Phytomyza hellebori is a small fly that infests only the H. foetidus plants in the Hellebore genus. The leaf miner fly digs tunnels into the leaves of the H. foetidus. The tunnels create brownish-black blotches on the plant. These later turn into a nesting ground where the flies lay their eggs. With time, the leaves turn a brownish-white along where the tunnels were dug. The larvae start to eat the inside of the leaves in August, and damage develops from the late summer to the early spring, with heavy attacks leaving the foliage disfigured by spring. To control heavy infestations, the leaves can be removed and destroyed during the winter months before the adult flies emerge. Insecticides can be used with limited effectiveness in controlling larvae and fly populations in the plant. Insecticides may harm non-leaf miner flies if applied during the hellebore's flowering period. Aphids start their feeding from the outside the flowers, beginning at the leaves and then moving towards the flower petals of the hellebore. As the hellebore begins to open, the aphids try to move into the flower. The aphids then feed on the inner parts of the plant as well as the young stems and shoots. As the population grows, the aphids eventually eat the remaining parts of the plant, such as older leaves, for food. To treat the infected plant, the first step is to remove infected and dying leaves, buds, and flowers immediately along with any other dead plant materials around the hellebore. The next step is to reduce the humidity around the plant by improving the ventilation and ensuring the plants are not overcrowded. The small black fruiting bodies which carry the spores, pycnidia, are formed in the dead cells of the leaf spots. The spores are mainly spread by water, wind, and wind-blown rain. The fungus has an ideal habitat to spread and grow at the final growth site for hellebore plants, and if left untreated, the spores remain for many years. The most effective method against C. hellebori is to remove and destroy the infected leaves immediately to avoid reinfection the following spring. The most seriously affected in the UK is H. orientalis, but all hellebores are susceptible to the disease. The most effective method of treatment against black death is to dig up and destroy all infected plants immediately. Many viruses are not transmitted through seeds, so it is possible to raise new disease resistant plants this way. The case in New Zealand is the only reported case of P. viridiflava infecting hellebores so far, but in other plants P. viridiflava has been reported to also induce symptoms such as leaf rot, leaf blotch, stem necrosis and blossom blight. ==Horticulture==

Hellebores are widely grown in United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zones 5a to 8b gardens for decorative purposes. They are particularly valued by gardeners for their winter and early spring flowering period; the plants are surprisingly frost-resistant and many are evergreen. Also of value is their shade tolerance. Many species of hellebore have green or greenish-purple flowers and are of limited garden value, although Corsican hellebore (H. argutifolius), a robust plant with pale green, cup-shaped flowers and attractive leathery foliage, is widely grown. So is the 'stinking hellebore' or setterwort (H. foetidus), which has drooping clusters of small, pale green, bell-shaped flowers, often edged with maroon, which contrasts with its dark evergreen foliage. H. foetidus 'Wester Flisk', with red-flushed flowers and flower stalks, is becoming popular, as are more recent selections with golden-yellow foliage. The so-called Christmas rose (H. niger), a traditional cottage garden favourite, bears its pure white flowers (which often age to pink) in the depths of winter; large-flowered cultivars are available, as are pink-flowered and double-flowered selections. The most popular hellebores for garden use are H. orientalis and its colourful hybrids, H. × hybridus (Lenten rose). In the northern hemisphere, they flower in early spring, around the period of Lent, and are often known as Lenten hellebores, oriental hellebores, or Lenten roses. They are excellent for bringing early colour to shady herbaceous borders and areas between deciduous shrubs and under trees. == Toxicity ==

All helleborus plants are toxic, and all parts of the helleborus plant are toxic. Hellebore poisoning is rare, but it does occur. It was used in the First Sacred War at the start of the sixth century BC to poison the water supply of the city of Kirrha. Poisonings occur through ingestion or handling. Hellebore plants should not be ingested as poisoning cases are most severe when the plants are eaten. This is especially true when hellebores are eaten in large quantities. Although black hellebore contains protoanemonin and ranunculin, which has an acrid taste and can cause burning of the eyes, mouth, and throat, oral ulceration, gastroenteritis, and hematemesis, research in the 1970s showed that the roots of H. niger do not contain the cardiac glycosides helleborin, hellebrin, and helleborein that are responsible for the lethal reputation of "black hellebore". It seems that earlier studies may have used a commercial preparation containing a mixture of material from other species such as Helleborus viridis, green hellebore. == Uses ==

In the early days of medicine, two kinds of hellebore were recognized: black hellebore, which included various species of Helleborus, and white hellebore, now known as Veratrum album, Although the latter plant contains highly toxic, teratogenic alkaloids such as veratrine, cyclopamine, and jervine, it is believed to be the "hellebore" used by Hippocrates as a purgative. Despite serious risks, "black hellebore" was used by the Greeks and Romans to treat paralysis, gout and psychosis. ==Culture==

H. niger is commonly called the Christmas rose, due to an old legend that it sprouted in the snow from the tears of a young girl who had no gift to give the Christ Child in Bethlehem. In Greek mythology, Melampus of Pylos used hellebore to save the daughters of the king of Argos from a madness, induced by Dionysus, that caused them to run naked through the city, crying, weeping, and screaming. During the Siege of Kirrha in 585 BC, hellebore was reportedly used by the Greek besiegers to poison the city's water supply. The defenders were subsequently so weakened by diarrhea that they were unable to defend the city from assault. In a fit of madness induced by Hera, Heracles killed his children. His madness was cured using hellebore. == Gallery ==

Species Helleborus bocconei 2.jpg|Helleborus bocconei Helleborus dumetorum (Hecken-Nieswurz) IMG 34924.JPG|H. dumetorum (Hecken-Nieswurz) Helleborus lividus ssp. corsicus (Jardin des Plantes de Paris).jpg|Helleborus lividus ssp. corsicus (Jardin des Plantes de Paris) Helleborus foetidus 004.JPG|H. foetidus Helleborus odorus (Ranunculaceae) plant.jpg|H. odorus Helleborus purpurascens.jpg|H. purpurascens Helleborus argutifolius - Innsbruck Botanical Garden.jpg|Helleborus argutifolius - Innsbruck Botanical Garden Helleborus_(three_stages).jpg|H. niger with fruits and flowers in two different stages Hybrids Double hellebore, dark red.JPG|Double hellebore, dark red Double white and pink picotee hellebore.JPG|Double white and pink picotee hellebore Double pink hellebore with dark blotching.JPG|Double pink hellebore with dark blotching Double white hellebore with pink spotting.JPG|Double white hellebore with pink spotting Double pink hellebore with darker pink veining.JPG|Double pink hellebore with darker pink veining Double white hellebore hybrid 'Betty Ranicar'.JPG|Double white hellebore hybrid 'Betty Ranicar' Yellow double hellebore.JPG|Yellow double hellebore "Blue-black" double hellebore.JPG|"Blue-black" double hellebore Double pink hellebore with dark venation.JPG|Double pink hellebore with dark venation == See also ==