Indus Valley Civilisation According to
Joseph Campbell, the
Indus Valley (2600–1900 BCE) may have left traces in the beliefs and traditions of Hinduism. Artefacts have revealed motifs that are also employed and revered by Hindus today, such as primary male deities worshipped by a ruling elite, mother goddesses, nature spirits,
snake worship, as well as the reverence of other theriomorphic (animal-shaped) beings. These themes would be maintained by the
Dravidian folk religion even after the decline of its parent civilisation around 1800 BCE.
Vedic period The Vedic period (c.1500-500 BCE) marks the foundational era of Hindu mythology, characterized by the composition of the
Vedas, the oldest sacred scriptures of the tradition. Derived from the Sanskrit root
vid means "to know". The term Veda signifies knowledge that was "heard" (shruti) or orally communicated to ancient sages known as
Rishis. The pantheon of this era focus on the personification of natural forces, governed by a "Vedic Triad" of supreme deities :
Agni,
Indra and
Surya. A major factor in the development of Hinduism was the Vedic religion. The
Indo-Aryan migration brought their distinct beliefs to the Indian subcontinent, where the
Vedas were composed around 1500 BCE.
The Vedas and early scripture Hindu mythology's oldest roots lie in four scriptures. The Rig Veda contains praise verses to the gods. The Yajur Veda provides the wording for sacrificial rites. The Sama Veda arranges its verses as songs to be melodically chanted. The Atharva Veda collects spells, curses, and healing incantations. The Rig Veda takes us back to the earliest known phase of Hindu religion. In that world, people did not bow before carved idols. Instead, they chanted mantras and poured offerings into sacred fires. The use of physical images of gods likely came only in later centuries.
The Vedic triad and principal deities In the early period of Hindu mythology, three gods stood above all others: Agni, Indra, and Surya. Scholars sometimes call this grouping the "Vedic Triad." These three were not simply born into power, according to the myths. Rather, they earned their high status over other natural forces by performing sacrifices. •
Indra : - As the most popular deity of the Vedic age, Indra is the god of the firmament who wields the thunderbolt and commands the refreshing showers that make the earth fruitful. People celebrate Indra as a fearsome warrior because of what he did to Vritra. Vritra was a demon who caused drought by blocking the waters. Indra killed him, and that act released the "sky waters" down to earth. Those waters watered the dry soil and made it good for farming again. •
Agni : - Agni is the messenger who travels between gods and humans. But he is not just a go-between. The myths say he stays in every home, and people there treat him like an honored guest who has come to visit. •
Surya : - Surya is often called the one who gives life to everything. According to the myths, he travels across the sky in a fiery chariot. His light drives out darkness, and it also stirs up human thought and understanding. The Gayatri Mantra is considered one of the most spiritually charged and revered verses in all of Hinduism. Who does it praise? Surya. The mantra speaks directly to his magnificent, shining glory.
Brahmanical period This period saw the composition of commentaries referred to as the
Brahmanas.
Upanishad period According to Williams, from 900 to 600 BCE, the protests of the populace against sacrifices made towards the Vedic gods and rebellions against the Brahmin class led to the embrace of reform by the latter and the composition of the
fourth Veda and the
Vedanta texts. About half of the Upanishads were mystical and unitive, speaking of experiencing the divine as the one (ekam), while the other half promoted devotion to one or more deities. New gods and goddesses were celebrated, and devotional practices began to be introduced.
Epic period The era from 400 BCE to 400 CE was the period of the compilation of India’s great epics, the
Mahabharata and
Ramayana. These were central manifestations of the newly developing Hindu synthesis, contributing to a specific Hindu mythology, emphasising divine action on earth in
Vishnu's incarnations and other divine manifestations. The lore of the
devas and the
asuras expanded. Epic mythology foreshadowed the rich polytheism of the next two periods. The Mahabharata contained two appendices that were extremely important sources for later mythological development, the
Bhagavad Gîta and the
Harivamsa.
Puranic period According to Williams, the mythology of the
Puranas can be broken into three periods (300–500; 500–1000; 1000–1800), or the whole period may simply be referred to as the Hindu Middle Ages. This age saw the composition of the major Puranic texts of the faith, along with the rise of sectarianism, with followers amassing around the cults of
Vishnu,
Shiva, or
Devi. The three denominations within this period help locate in time historical developments within the sectarian communities, the rise and decline of Tantrism and its influence on mainstream mythology, the tendencies in Puranic mythologising of subordinating Vedic gods and past heroes to ever-increasing moral weaknesses, going on to be identified as a period of exuberant polytheism. However, this was also accompanied with the belief in monotheism, the idea that all paths lead to the Ultimate Reality,
Brahman. Several myths were found or invented to make tribals or former "outcastes" Hindus and bring them within the cultural whole of a reconstructed Hindu mythological community. The timeline of the
Vedic-Puranic chronology is derived from the Hindu epics and mythology, and plays a central role in the
fringe theory of
Indigenous Aryanism, which denies the established
Indo-Aryan migration theory, despite strong literary and genetic evidence. ==Mythical themes and types==