Bhagavad Gita

The Gita in the title of the Bhagavad Gita means "song". Religious leaders and scholars interpret the word Bhagavad in several ways. Accordingly, the title has been interpreted as "the song of God", "the word of God" by theistic schools, "the words of the Lord", and "Celestial Song" by others. The Sanskrit name is often written as Shrimad Bhagavad Gita (श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता). The prefix shrimad denotes a high degree of respect. The Bhagavad Gita is not to be confused with the Bhagavata Purana, which is one of the eighteen major Puranas dealing with the life of the Hindu God Krishna and various avatars of Vishnu. The word Gītā (गीता) is in the feminine gender. This is because the text is traditionally treated as an Upaniṣad, and Upaniṣad is a feminine noun in Sanskrit. Each chapter of the Gita ends with the phrase "Gītāsu Upaniṣatsu," confirming this connection. It even contains many verses that closely parallel those found in the Upanishads, often with only minor differences The work is also known as the Iswara Gita, the Ananta Gita, the Hari Gita, the Vyasa Gita, or the Gita. ==Dating and authorship==

Dating The text is generally dated to the second or first century BCE, though later (1st c. CE) and earlier estimates (400-500 BCE) have also been given, while 200 BCE may also be the date of a major revision. Winthrop Sargeant linguistically categorizes the Bhagavad Gita as Epic-Puranic Sanskrit, a language that succeeds Vedic Sanskrit and precedes classical Sanskrit. The text has occasional pre-classical elements of the Vedic Sanskrit language, such as aorists and the prohibitive mā instead of the expected na (not) of classical Sanskrit. This suggests that the text was composed after the Pāṇini era but before the long compounds of classical Sanskrit became the norm. This would date the text as transmitted by the oral tradition to the later centuries of the 1st-millennium BCE, and the first written version probably to the 2nd or 3rd century CE. Heather Elgood writes that the Bhagavad Gita was the product of an oral tradition and was compiled between 300 BCE and 300 CE. Kashi Nath Upadhyaya cites excerpts from the dharmasutra texts, the Brahma sutras, Sanskrit poetry, and other extant literature to conclude that the Bhagavad Gita was composed in the fifth or fourth century BCE. He states that the Gita was always a part of the Mahabharata and that its canonical form was standardized along with the latter. Upadhyaya places the Mahabharata "not long after the time of the Buddha," as it contains references to the Buddha. Based on the estimated dates of the Mahabharata as evidenced by exact quotes of it in the Buddhist literature by Asvaghosa (c. 100 CE), Upadhyaya states that the Mahabharata, and therefore the Gita, must have been well known by then for a Buddhist to be quoting it. This suggests a terminus ante quem (latest date) of the Gita sometime before the 1st century CE. The Indologist Étienne Lamotte used a similar analysis to conclude that the Gita in its current form likely underwent one redaction that occurred in the 3rd or 2nd-century BCE. Authorship In the Indian tradition, the Bhagavad Gita, as well as the epic Mahabharata of which it is a part, is attributed to the sage Vyasa. A Hindu legend narrates that Vyasa composed it, and Ganesha, who broke one of his tusks, used this tusk to write down the Mahabharata along with the Bhagavad Gita. Scholars consider Vyasa to be a mythical or symbolic author, in part because Vyasa is also a title or generic name for the compiler of a text, and Vyasa is also regarded by tradition as the compiler of the Vedas and the Puranas, texts dated with a time-difference of circa two millennia. According to Alexus McLeod, a scholar of Philosophy and Asian Studies, it is "impossible to link the Bhagavad Gita to a single author", and it may be the work of many authors. This view is shared by the Indologist Arthur Basham, who states that there were three or more authors or compilers of Bhagavad Gita. This is evidenced by the discontinuous intermixing of philosophical verses with theistic or passionately theistic verses, according to Basham. The Gita, states van Buitenen, was conceived and developed by the Mahabharata authors to "bring to a climax and solution the dharmic dilemma of a war". Vāsudeva-Krishna roots According to Dennis Hudson, there is an overlap between Vedic and Tantric rituals within the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita. Dennis Hudson places the Pancaratra Agama in the last three or four centuries of 1st-millennium BCE, and proposes that both the tantric and vedic, the Agama and the Gita share the same Vāsudeva-Krishna roots. According to Hudson, a story in this Vedic text highlights the meaning of the name Vāsudeva as the 'shining one (deva) who dwells (Vasu) in all things and in whom all things dwell', and the meaning of Vishnu to be the 'pervading actor'. In the Bhagavad Gita, similarly, 'Krishna identified himself both with Vāsudeva, Vishnu and their meanings'. The ideas at the centre of Vedic rituals in Shatapatha Brahmana and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita revolve around this absolute Person, the primordial genderless absolute, which is the same as the goal of Pancaratra Agama and Tantra. ==Manuscripts and layout==

The Bhagavad Gita manuscript is found in the sixth book of the Mahabharata manuscripts – the Bhisma-parvan. Therein, in the third section, the Gita forms chapters 23–40, that is 6.3.23 to 6.3.40. The Bhagavad Gita is often preserved and studied on its own, as an independent text with its chapters renumbered from 1 to 18. The Bhagavad Gita manuscripts exist in numerous Indic scripts. These include writing systems that are currently in use, as well as early scripts such as the now dormant Sharada script. Variant manuscripts of the Gita have been found on the Indian subcontinent. The 700 verses He drops his bow, wonders if he should renounce his duty and just leave the battlefield. He turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice on the rationale for war, his choices, and the right thing to do. The Bhagavad Gita is the compilation of Arjuna's questions and moral dilemma and Krishna's answers and insights that elaborate on a variety of philosophical concepts. The compiled dialogue goes far beyond the "rationale for war"; it touches on many human ethical dilemmas, philosophical issues and life's choices. According to Flood and Martin, although the Gita is set in the context of a wartime epic, the narrative is structured to apply to all situations; it wrestles with questions about "who we are, how we should live our lives, and how should we act in the world". According to Huston Smith, it delves into questions about the "purpose of life, crisis of self-identity, human Self, human temperaments, and ways for the spiritual quest". The Gita posits the existence of two selves in an individual, and its presentation of the Krishna-Arjuna dialogue has been interpreted as a metaphor for an eternal dialogue between the two. ==Textual significance==

Synthesis prioritizing dharma and bhakti The Bhagavad Gita is a synthesis of Vedic and non-Vedic traditions, reconciling renunciation with action by arguing that they are inseparable; while following one's dharma, one should not consider oneself to be the agent of action, but attribute all one's actions to God. It is a Brahmanical text that uses Shramanic and Yogic terminology to propagate the Brahmanic idea of living according to one's duty or dharma, in contrast to the ascetic ideal of liberation by avoiding all karma. According to Hiltebeitel, the Bhagavad Gita is the sealing achievement of the consolidation of Hinduism, merging Bhakti traditions with Mimamsa, Vedanta, and other knowledge based traditions.The Gita discusses and synthesizes sramana- and yoga-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism, attempting "to forge a harmony" between these three paths. It does this in a framework addressing the question of what constitutes the virtuous path that is necessary for spiritual liberation or release from the cycles of rebirth (moksha), incorporating various religious traditions, including philosophical ideas from the Upanishads samkhya yoga philosophy, and bhakti, incorporating bhakti into Vedanta. As such, it neutralizes the tension between the Brahmanical worldorder with its caste-based social institutions that hold society together, and the search for salvation by ascetics who have left society. Rejection of sramanic non-action {{Quote box better than meditation;Peace immediately follows renunciation. According to Gavin Flood and Charles Martin, the Gita rejects the shramanic path of non-action, emphasizing instead "the renunciation of the fruits of action". According to Gavin Flood, the teachings in the Gita differ from other Indian religions that encouraged extreme austerity and self-torture of various forms (karsayanta). The Gita disapproves of these, stating that not only is it against tradition but against Krishna himself, because "Krishna dwells within all beings, in torturing the body the ascetic would be torturing him", states Flood. Even a monk should strive for "inner renunciation" rather than external pretensions. It further states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation" or "motiveless action". Desires, selfishness, and the craving for fruits can distort one from spiritual living. mostly through the Vaishnava Vedanta commentaries written on it, though the text itself is also celebrated in the Puranas, for example, the Gita Mahatmya of the Varaha Purana. While Upanishads focus more on knowledge and the identity of the self with Brahman, the Bhagavad Gita shifts the emphasis towards devotion and the worship of a personal deity, specifically Krishna. There are alternate versions of the Bhagavad Gita (such as the one found in Kashmir), but the basic message behind these texts is not distorted. Modern prominence of a nuclear weapon led Oppenheimer to think "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds," a statement derived from verse 11.32 of the Bhagavad Gita. While Hinduism is known for its diversity and the synthesis derived from it, the Bhagavad Gita holds a unique pan-Hindu influence. Gerald James Larson – an Indologist and scholar of classical Hindu philosophy, states that "if there is any one text that comes near to embodying the totality of what it is to be a Hindu, it would be the Bhagavad Gita." Yet, according to Robinson, "it is increasingly recognized by scholars that the extraordinary prominence of the Bhagavad Gita is a feature of modernity despite disagreement over the date at which it became dominant." According to Eric Sharpe, this change started in the 1880s, and became prominent after 1900. According to Arvind Sharma, the Bhagavad Gita was always an important scripture but became prominent in the 1920s. With its translation and study by Western scholars beginning in the early 18th century, the Bhagavad Gita gained a growing appreciation and popularity in the West. Novel interpretations of the Gita, along with apologetics on it, have been a part of the modern era revisionism and renewal movements within Hinduism. According to Ronald Neufeldt, it was the Theosophical Society that dedicated much attention and energy to the allegorical interpretation of the Gita, along with religious texts from around the world, after 1885 and given H. P. Blavatsky, Subba Rao and Anne Besant writings. Their attempt was to present their "universalist religion." These late 19th-century theosophical writings called the Gita a "path of true spirituality" and "teaching nothing more than the basis of every system of philosophy and scientific endeavour", triumphing over other "Samkhya paths" of Hinduism that "have degenerated into superstition and demoralized India by leading people away from practical action". In April 2025, the Bhagavad Gita manuscript was added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register. Hindu reform movements Neo-Hindus and Hindu nationalists have celebrated the Bhagavad Gita as containing the essence of Hinduism and taking the Gita's emphasis on duty and action as a clue for their activism for Indian nationalism and independence. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–1894) challenged orientalist literature on Hinduism and offered his interpretations of the Gita, states Ajit Ray. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920) interpreted the karma yoga teachings in Gita as a "doctrine of liberation" taught by Hinduism, while Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) stated that the Bhagavad Gita teaches a universalist religion and the "essence of Hinduism" along with the "essence of all religions", rather than a private religion. Vivekananda's (1863–1902) works contained numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja. Through the message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of India to reclaim their dormant but strong identity. Aurobindo (1872–1950) saw the Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion" and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the Gita. Neo-Vedanta and yoga While the Upanishads refer to yoga as yoking or restraining the mind, the topic of BG chapter VI, the Bhagavad Gita introduces "the famous three kinds of yoga: 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)". Knowledge or insight, discerning the true self (purusha) from matter and material desires (prakriti), is the true aim of classical yoga, in which meditation and insight cannot be separated. Furthermore, the Gita "rejects the Buddhist and Jain path of non-action, emphasizing instead renunciation of the fruits of action" and devotion to Krishna. The systematic presentation of Hindu monotheism as divided into four paths or "Yogas" is modern, advocated by Swami Vivekananda from the 1890s in his books on Jnana Yoga,Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Raja Yoga, emphasizing Raja Yoga as the crowning achievement of yoga. Vivekananda, who was strongly inspired by the Gita, viewed all spiritual paths as equal. Vivekananda also noted that "The reconciliation of the different paths of Dharma, and work without desire or attachment — these are the two special characteristics of the Gita." Similarly, Cornille states that the Gita asserts that the path of Bhakti (devotion) is the foremost and the easiest of them all. Huston Smith describes, using Bhagavad Gita XIII verse 23–25, four ways to see the self based on the Samkhya premise that people are born with different temperaments and tendencies (guṇa). Some individuals are more reflective and intellectual, some are effective and engaged by their emotions, some are action-driven, yet others favour experimentation and exploring what works. According to Smith, Bhagavad Gita XIII verse 24-25 lists four different spiritual paths for each personality type respectively: the path of knowledge (jnana yoga), the path of devotion (bhakti yoga), the path of action (karma yoga), and the path of meditation (raja yoga). Medieval commentators argued which path had priority. According to Robinson, modern commentators have interpreted the text as refraining from insisting on one right marga (path) to spirituality. According to Upadhyaya, the Gita states that none of these paths to spiritual realization is "intrinsically superior or inferior", rather they "converge in one and lead to the same goal". ==Chapters and content==

The Bhagavad Gita contains 18 chapters and 700 verses found in the Bhishma Parva of the epic Mahabharata. Because of differences in recensions, the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25–42 or as chapters 6.23–40. with Disciples'', by Raja Ravi Varma (). Shankara published 700 verses of the Gita (), now the standard version. The original Bhagavad Gita has no chapter titles. Some Sanskrit editions that separate the Gita from the epic as an independent text, as well as translators, however, add chapter titles. For example, Swami Chidbhavananda describes each of the eighteen chapters as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind". He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection". Sir Edwin Arnold titled this chapter in his 1885 translation as "The Distress of Arjuna". The chapters are: Chapter 1: Arjuna Vishada Yoga (46 verses) Translators have variously titled the first chapter as Arjuna Vishada-yoga, Prathama Adhyaya, The Distress of Arjuna, The War Within, or ''Arjuna's Sorrow''. Chapter 4: Jnana Karma Sanyasa Yoga (42 verses) Translators title the fourth chapter as Jñāna–Karma-Sanyasa yoga, The Religion of Knowledge, Wisdom in Action, or The Yoga of Renunciation of Action through Knowledge. Chapter 5: Karma Sanyasa Yoga (29 verses) Translators title this chapter as Karma–Sanyasa yoga, Religion by Renouncing Fruits of Works, Renounce and Rejoice, or The Yoga of Renunciation. Chapter 6: Atma Samyama Yoga (47 verses) Translators title the sixth chapter as Dhyana yoga, Religion by Self-Restraint, The Practice of Meditation, or The Yoga of Meditation. It may, in fact, be neither of them, and its contents may have no definition with previously developed Western terms. depicting Mahabharata scenes involving Arjuna-Krishna chariot. Pattadakal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Chapter 10: Vibhuti Yoga (42 verses) Translators title the chapter as Vibhuti–Vistara–yoga, Religion by the Heavenly Perfections, Divine Splendor, or The Yoga of Divine Manifestations. Chapter 11, states Eknath Eswaran, describes Arjuna entering first into savikalpa samadhi (a particular form), and then nirvikalpa samadhi (a universal form) as he gets an understanding of Krishna. A part of the verse from this chapter was recited by J. Robert Oppenheimer in a 1965 television documentary about the atomic bomb. Chapter 12: Bhakti Yoga (20 verses) Translators title this chapter as Bhakti yoga, The Religion of Faith, The Way of Love, or The Yoga of Devotion. Chapter 13: Kshetra Kshetrajna Vibhaga Yoga (34 verses) Translators title this chapter as Ksetra–Ksetrajna Vibhaga yoga, Religion by Separation of Matter and Spirit, The Field and the Knower, or The Yoga of Difference between the Field and Field-Knower. According to Miller, this is the chapter which "redefines the battlefield as the human body, the material realm in which one struggles to know oneself" where human dilemmas are presented as a "symbolic field of interior warfare". Chapter 14: Gunatraya Vibhaga Yoga (27 verses) Translators title the fourteenth chapter as Gunatraya–Vibhaga yoga, Religion by Separation from the Qualities, The Forces of Evolution, or The Yoga of the Division of Three Gunas. Chapter 16: Daivasura Sampad Vibhaga Yoga (24 verses) Translators title the chapter as Daivasura–Sampad–Vibhaga yoga, The Separateness of the Divine and Undivine, Two Paths, or The Yoga of the Division between the Divine and the Demonic. Some of the verses in Chapter 16 may be polemics directed against competing Indian religions, according to Basham. The competing tradition may be the materialists (Charvaka), states Fowler. Chapter 17: Shraddhatraya Vibhaga Yoga (28 verses) Translators title the chapter as Shraddhatraya-Vibhaga yoga, Religion by the Threefold Kinds of Faith, The Power of Faith, or The Yoga of the Threefold Faith. It gives a comprehensive overview of Bhagavad Gita's teachings, highlighting self-realization, duty, and surrender to Krishna to attain liberation and inner peace. It begins with the discussion of spiritual pursuits through sannyasa (renunciation, monastic life) and spiritual pursuits while living in the world as a householder. It teaches "karma-phala-tyaga" (renunciation of the fruits of actions), emphasizing the renunciation of attachment to the outcomes of actions and performing duties with selflessness and devotion. == Themes ==

Dharma Dharma is a prominent paradigm of the Mahabharata, and it is referenced in the Gita as well. The term dharma has several meanings. Fundamentally, it refers to that which is right or just. Contextually, it also means the essence of "duty, law, class, social norms, ritual and cosmos itself" in the text, in the sense "the way things should be in all these different dimensions". According to Zaehner, the term dharma means "duty" in the Gitas context; in verse 2.7, it refers to the "right [and wrong]", and in 14.27 to the "eternal law of righteousness". Few verses in the Bhagavad Gita deal with dharma, according to the Indologist Paul Hacker, but the theme of dharma is broadly important. In Chapter 1, responding to Arjuna's despondency, Krishna asks him to follow his sva-dharma, "the dharma that belongs to a particular man (Arjuna) as a member of a particular varna, (i.e., the kshatriya – the warrior varna)". According to Paul Hacker, the term dharma has additional meanings in the context of Arjuna. It is more broadly, the "duty" and a "metaphysically congealed act" for Arjuna. According to the Indologist Jacqueline Hirst, the dharma theme is "of significance only at the beginning and end of the Gita" and this may have been a way to perhaps link the Gita to the context of the Mahabharata. According to Malinar, "Arjuna's crisis and some of the arguments put forward to call him to action are connected to the debates on war and peace in the Udyoga Parva." The Udyoga Parva presents many views about the nature of a warrior, his duty and what calls for heroic action. While Duryodhana presents it as a matter of status, social norms, and fate, Vidura states that the heroic warrior never submits, knows no fear and has the duty to protect people. The Bhishma Parva sets the stage for two ideologies in conflict and two massive armies gathered for what each considers as a righteous and necessary war. In this context, the Gita advises Arjuna to do his holy duty (sva-dharma) as a warrior: fight and kill. According to the Indologist Barbara Miller, the text frames heroism not in terms of physical abilities, but instead in terms of effort and inner commitment to fulfil a warrior's dharma on the battlefield. War is depicted as a horror, the impending slaughter a cause for self-doubt, yet at stake is the spiritual struggle against evil. The Gita's message emphasizes that personal moral ambivalence must be addressed, the warrior needs to rise above "personal and social values" and understand what is at stake and "why he must fight". The text explores the "paradoxical interconnectedness of disciplined action and freedom". The first reference to dharma in the Bhagavad Gita occurs in its first verse, where Dhritarashtra refers to the Kurukshetra, the location of the battlefield, as the Field of Dharma, "The Field of Righteousness or Truth". According to Fowler, dharma in this verse may refer to the sanatana dharma, "what Hindus understand as their religion, for it is a term that encompasses wide aspects of religious and traditional thought and is more readily used for religion". Therefore, the "field of dharma" implies the field of righteousness, where the truth will eventually triumph, states Fowler. According to Jacqueline Hirst, the "field of dharma" phrase in the Gita epitomizes that the struggle concerns dharma itself. This dharma has "resonances at many different levels". Asceticism, renunciation and ritualism The Gita rejects ascetic life, renunciation as well as Brahminical Vedic ritualism where outward actions or non-actions are considered a means of personal reward in life, the afterlife or as a means of liberation. Instead, it recommends the pursuit of an active life where the individual adopts "inner renunciation", and acts to fulfil what he determines to be his dharma, without craving for or being concerned about personal rewards, viewing this as an "inner sacrifice to the personal God for a higher good". According to Edwin Bryant, the Indologist with publications on Krishna-related Hindu traditions, the Gita rejects "actionless behaviour" found in some Indic monastic traditions. It also "relegates the sacrificial system of the early Vedic literature to a path that goes nowhere because it is based on desires", states Bryant. Moksha – liberation The Bhagavad Gita accommodates dualistic and theistic aspects of moksha. The Gita, while including impersonal Nirguna Brahman as the goal, mainly revolves around the relationship between the Self and a personal God or Saguna Brahman. A synthesis of knowledge, devotion, and desireless action is offered by Krishna as a spectrum of choices to Arjuna; the same combination is suggested to the reader as a way to moksha. Christopher Chapple---a scholar focusing on Indian religions---in Winthrop Sargeant's translation of the Gita, states that "In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gita, every aspect of life is a way of salvation." Spiritual discipline The Gita treats three forms of spiritual discipline - jnana, bhakti and karma – to attain the divine. However, states Fowler, it "does not raise any of these to a status that excludes the others". The theme that unites these paths in the Gita is "inner renunciation" where one is unattached to personal rewards during one's spiritual journey. Karma yoga – selfless action The Gita teaches the path of selfless action in Chapter 3 and others. It upholds the necessity of action. However, this action should "not simply follow spiritual injunctions", without any attachment to personal rewards or because of craving for fruits. The Gita teaches, according to Fowler, that the action should be undertaken after proper knowledge has been applied to gain a full perspective on "what the action should be". The concept of such detached action is also called Nishkama Karma, a term not used in the Gita but equivalent to other terms such as karma-phala-tyaga. This is where one determines what the right action ought to be and then acts while being detached to personal outcomes, to fruits, to success or failure. A karma yogi finds such work inherently fulfilling and satisfying. To a karma yogi, right work done well is a form of prayer, and karma yoga is the path of selfless action. According to Mahatma Gandhi, the object of the Gita is to show the way to attain self-realization, and this "can be achieved by selfless action, by desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him, body and Self." Gandhi called the Gita "The Gospel of Selfless Action". According to Jonardon Ganeri, the premise of "disinterested action" is one of the important ethical concepts in the Gita. Bhakti yoga – devotion While the Upanishads focus more on knowledge and the identity of the self with Brahman, the Bhagavad Gita shifts the emphasis towards devotion and the worship of a personal deity, specifically Krishna. In the Bhagavad Gita, bhakti is characterized as the "loving devotion, a longing, surrender, trust and adoration" of the divine Krishna as the ishta-devata. While bhakti is mentioned in many chapters, the idea gathers momentum after verse 6.30, and chapter 12 is where is fully developed. According to Fowler, the bhakti in the Gita does not imply renunciation of "action", but the bhakti effort is assisted with "right knowledge" and dedication to one's dharma. Theologian Catherine Cornille writes, "The text [of the Gita] offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (Jnana), action (karma), and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation." According to M. R. Sampatkumaran, a Bhagavad Gita scholar, Gita's message is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release, but "devotion, meditation, and worship are essential." The Gita likely spawned a "powerful devotional" movement, states Fowler, because the text and this path were simpler and available to everyone. Jnana yoga – discernment of the true self Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, and direct realization of the Brahman. In the Bhagavad Gita, it is also referred to as buddhi yoga and its goal is the discernment of the true self. The text states that this is the path that intellectuals tend to prefer. The chapter 4 of the Bhagavad Gita is dedicated to the general exposition of jnana yoga. The Gita praises the path, calling the jnana yogi to be exceedingly dear to Krishna, but adds that the path is steep and difficult. Raja yoga – meditation Some scholars treat the "yoga of meditation," yoga proper, to be a distinct fourth path taught in the Gita, referring to it as Raja yoga. Others consider it a progressive stage or a combination of Karma yoga and Bhakti yoga. Some, such as Adi Shankara, have considered its discussion in the 13th chapter of the Gita and elsewhere to be an integral part of Jnana yoga. Metaphysics To build its metaphysical framework, the text relies on the theories found in the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of Hinduism. Prakriti and maya The Gita considers the world to be transient, all bodies and matter as impermanent. Everything that constitutes prakriti (nature, matter) is process-driven and has a finite existence. It is born, grows, matures, decays, and dies. It considers this transient reality as Maya. Like the Upanishads, the Gita focuses on what it considers real in this world of change, impermanence, and finitude. Atman The Gita, states Fowler, "thoroughly accepts" atman as a foundational concept. In the Upanishads, this is the Brahmanical idea that all beings have a "permanent real self", the true essence, the Self it refers to as Atman (Self). In the Upanishads that preceded the Gita, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the salvational goal is to know and realize this Self, a knowledge that is devoid of the delusions of the instinctive "I, mine" egoism typically connected with the body and material life processes that are impermanent and transient. The Gita accepts atman as the pure, unchanging, ultimate real essence. Krishna and Brahman The Gita teaches both the personalized God, in the form of Krishna, and the abstract nirguna Brahman. The text blurs any distinction between a personalized God and impersonal absolute reality by amalgamating the two and using the concepts interchangeably in later chapters, though it projects the nirguna Brahman as higher than saguna or personalized Brahman, where the nirguna Brahman "exists when everything else does not". This theme has led scholars to call the Gita panentheistic, theistic as well as monistic. The Gita adopts the Upanishadic concept of Absolute Reality (Brahman), a shift from the earlier ritual-driven Vedic religion to one abstracting and internalizing spiritual experiences. According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita builds on the Upanishadic Brahman theme, conceptualized to be that which is everywhere, unaffected, constant Absolute, indescribable and nirguna (abstract, without features). This Absolute in the Gita is neither a He nor a She, but a "neuter principle", an "It or That". Relation between Atman and Krishna The Upanishads developed the equation "Atman = Brahman", states Fowler and this belief is central to the Gita. This equation is, however, interpreted in several ways by different sub-schools of Vedanta. In the Gita, the Self of each human being is considered to be identical to every other human being and all beings, but it "does not support an identity with the Brahman", according to Fowler. According to Raju, the Gita supports this identity and spiritual monism, but as a form of synthesis with a personal God. According to Edgerton, the authors of the Gita rely on their concept of a personalized God (Krishna) to ultimately arrive at an ultimate monism, where the devotee realizes that Krishna is the essential part, the real fundamental element within everyone and everything. Krishna is simultaneously one and all. According to Huston Smith, the Gita is teaching that "when one sees the entire universe as pervaded by the single Universal Spirit [Krishna], one contemplates, marvels, and falls in love with its amazing glory. [...] Having experienced that Truth oneself, all doubts are dispelled. This is how the flower of devotion evolves into the fruit of knowledge." ==Commentaries==

Classical Bhashya (commentaries) Ramanuja(Rāmānuja) was a Hindu theologian and philosopher in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition. He lived in the 11th and early 12th centuries. Like other Vedanta scholars, Ramanuja wrote a commentary on the Gita called the Gita Bhashya. Its composite nature also leads to varying interpretations of the text and scholars have written bhashya (commentaries) on it. Many "classical and modern Hindu" intellectuals have written commentaries on the Gita. According to Mysore Hiriyanna, the Gita is "one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it—each differing from the rest in one essential point or the other". The Gita has attracted much scholarly interest in Indian history and some 227 commentaries have survived in the Sanskrit language alone. It has also attracted commentaries in regional vernacular languages for centuries, such as the one by Sant Dnyaneshwar in Marathi (13th century). Adi Shankaracharya (c. 800 CE) Adi Shankara's (Ādi Śaṅkara)commentary is the oldest surviving and most influential, establishing the Bhagavad Gita as one of the three foundational sources of scriptural authority (Prasthana Trayi) required for any new school of Vedanta. In his interpretation, Shankara describes two aspects of Brahman: the higher unqualified Absolute (para or nirguna Brahman) and the lower qualified Brahman (apara or saguna Brahman) identified as Ishvara, the Lord. Advaita Vedanta affirms on the non-dualism of Atman and Brahman. Shankara maintains that Krishna's lordship operates within conventional reality (vyavaharika-satta). The distinction between the worshiper and the Lord, he argues, results from superimposition (adhyasa) and dissolves at the level of absolute truth (paramarthika-satta).He describes Krishna as an avatara of Narayana who took birth with a "partial portion" of himself. Krishna only appears (iva) to possess a material body through the manipulation of his own maya, a process that protects the stability of the world. For Shankara, the Gita's purpose is to direct attention toward the eternal Atman-Brahman. He presents bhakti as a practice that purifies the mind (citta-shuddhi) before the individual realizes an absolute identity that no longer requires the concept of a personal God. Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 CE) Abhinavagupta was a theologian and philosopher of the Kashmir Shaivism (Shiva) tradition. Ramanujacharya (c. 1100 CE) Ramanuja was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and an exponent of the Sri Vaishnavism (Vishnu) tradition in the 11th and early 12th centuries. Like his Vedanta peers, Ramanuja wrote a bhashya (commentary) on the Gita - Gita Bhashya. His interpretation differed from Adi Shankara's. Shankara read the Gita as a text on nondualism, where the Self and Brahman are identical. Ramanuja instead interpreted it as qualified monism, known as Vishishtadvaita. He identified the supreme Brahman as the personal deity Narayana, or Vishnu. He stated that Brahman is the highest unitary reality. It contains individual conscious souls and unconscious matter as real parts of itself, rather than these being false appearances.Through his commentaries, Ramanuja presented arguments for the devotional tradition. He connected it to mainstream philosophical discourse. In his Gita Bhashya, Ramanuja described Narayana's incarnation as Krishna. He called the Lord a "vast ocean of boundless mercy, affability, affection and generosity" who descends to earth to become a refuge for all. He argued that Krishna's birth is physically real and not an illusion. It differs from human birth because Krishna undertakes it by his own will rather than being compelled by karma, and it remains free from the defects of material nature. Ramanuja maintained that Krishna's body is "not made of material nature" (aprakrita). This allows him to be visible to all people, regardless of social status, so that they may be attracted to his divine beauty and deeds. He viewed this divine descent as spiritual nourishment for devotees seeking liberation, giving them the opportunity to look at and talk with the Lord. Madhvacharya (c. 1250 CE) Madhvacharya (Madhvācārya) wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called the Gita Bhashya. In his theology, the individual soul (jiva), Vishnu, and the world are fundamentally different from one another. He identifies Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Central to his school's ontology is the distinction between svatantra (independent) reality, which belongs to Vishnu alone, and asvatantra (dependent) reality, which applies to all other entities. This framework is supported by his doctrine of taratamya (gradation), which describes a hierarchical relationship among entities and events. Vishnu occupies the highest position in this hierarchy. Within this system, Krishna is regarded as one of many avataras or essential parts (svamshas) that are identical to Vishnu. He occupies a position of importance in the devotional life of the tradition.Krishna is the central deity in the Madhva tradition based in Udupi, South India. Traditional hagiography, such as the Madhvavijaya, recounts that Madhva discovered the Udupi Shri Krishna image hidden in a lump of gopichandan (clay) used as ship ballast. Madhvacharya's interpretation of the Gita critiques Advaita Vedanta. He challenges Shankara's views on the ontological status of ignorance. He maintains that knowledge of Vishnu is the prerequisite for liberation (moksha), but final release requires the Lord's grace (prasada). For those on the path of bhakti-yoga, Madhva teaches that recognizing the supremacy of Hari and the inherent gradations of the universe is essential for spiritual progress. Vallabhacharya (1479 CE) The Shuddhadvaita ("pure non-dualism") philosophy, formalized by Vallabhacharya in his commentary on the Gita titled Tattva Dīpikā, states that the entire universe is a real manifestation of Krishna's nature. It consists of existence (sat), consciousness (chit), and joy (ananda). This tradition, known as the Pushtimarga or "Way of Grace," teaches that spiritual progress depends on receiving divine grace (anugraha) rather than individual self-effort, which can lead to pride. Central to this path is the practice of seva (devotional service) to svarups. These are not viewed as symbols but as living, sentient forms of Krishna that require constant care. Keshav Kashmiri (c. 1410 CE) Keshav Kashmiri Bhatt (Keśava Kāśmīri Bhaṭṭa), a commentator of Dvaitadvaita Vedanta school, wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita named . The text states that Dasasloki—possibly authored by Nimbarka—teaches the essence of the Gita; the Gita tattva prakashika interprets the Gita also in a hybrid monist-dualist manner. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533) was a Vaishnava saint from Navadvipa, Bengal. He founded the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition and led a bhakti movement in northern India. Chaitanya wrote eight verses of instruction, the Shikshashtaka. He entrusted the systematic formulation of his theology to the Six Gosvamis of Vrindavan: Rupa Gosvami, Sanatana Gosvami, Jiva Gosvami, Gopala Bhatta Gosvami, Raghunatha Bhatta Gosvami, and Raghunatha Dasa Gosvami. The Gosvamis integrated Chaitanya's teachings with Vedantic categories. They used the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana as the primary scriptural sources for the school. The tradition's philosophy is achintya-bhedabheda. It describes the relationship between the Supreme Lord and his energies as "inconceivable difference in non-difference." Gaudiya theology identifies Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, the original form of the absolute Truth. In this view, Vishnu and other deities emanate from Krishna. Earlier commentators had described Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. The tradition emphasizes the holy names of Krishna through sankirtana, or congregational chanting. This practice is described as a sonic avatara and the primary religious method for the current age, Kali Yuga. The theology applies classical aesthetic theory (rasa) to devotion. The goal of human existence, in this view, is not liberation (moksha) but selfless love (prema) for Krishna. Others Other classical commentators include: • Bhāskara () disagreed with Adi Shankara, wrote his commentary on both Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras in the tradition. According to Bhaskara, the Gita is essentially Advaita, but not quite exactly, suggesting that "the Atman (Self) of all beings are like waves in the ocean that is Brahman". Bhaskara also disagreed with Shankara's formulation of the Maya doctrine, stating that prakriti, atman and Brahman are all metaphysically real. commentary Dnyaneshwari ( Jnaneshwari or Bhavarthadipika) is the oldest surviving literary work in the Marathi language, The commentary interprets the Gita in the Advaita Vedanta tradition. Dnyaneshwar belonged to the Nath yogi tradition. His commentary on the Gita is notable for stating that it is the devotional commitment and love with inner renunciation that matters, not the name Krishna or Shiva, either can be used interchangeably. • Vallabha II, a descendant of Vallabha (1479 CE), wrote the commentary Tattvadeepika in the Suddha-Advaita tradition. • Tilak wrote his commentary Shrimadh Bhagavad Gita Rahasya while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the colonial government in India for sedition. While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga. • No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavad Gita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary". During his stay in Yeravada jail in 1929, • The version by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, entitled Bhagavad-Gita as It Is, is "by far the most widely distributed of all English Gīta translations" due to the efforts of ISKCON. Its publisher, the , estimates sales at twenty-three million copies, a figure which includes the original English edition and secondary translations into fifty-six other languages. • Bhagavad Gita – The song of God, is a commentary by Swami Mukundananda. • Paramahansa Yogananda's two-volume commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, called God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita, was released in 1995 and is available in 4 languages and as an English e-book. The book is significant in that unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on karma yoga, jnana yoga, and bhakti yoga in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or raja yoga. • Other modern writers such as Swami Parthasarathy and Sādhu Vāsvāni have published their own commentaries. • Academic commentaries include those by Jeaneane Fowler, Ithamar Theodor, and Robert Zaehner. • A collection of Christian commentaries on the Gita has been edited by Catherine Cornille, comparing and contrasting a wide range of views on the text by theologians and religious scholars. • The book The Teachings of Bhagavad Gita: Timeless Wisdom for the Modern Age by Richa Tilokani offers a woman's perspective on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita in a simplified and reader-friendly spiritual format. • Swami Dayananda Saraswati published a four-volume Bhagavad Gītā, Home Study Course in 1998 based on transcripts from his teaching and commentary of the Bhagavad Gītā in the classroom. This was later published in 2011 in a new edition and nine-volume format. • Galyna Kogut and Rahul Singh published An Atheist Gets the Gita, a 21st-century interpretation of the 5,000-year-old text. • A compact edition by Satyanarayana Dasa arranges the Sanskrit words so that their corresponding meanings form complete sentences. This method, known as 'anvaya' in Sanskrit, follows the traditional way of presenting the meaning. Additionally, the book includes extensive footnotes that clarify difficult concepts. • Anandmurti Gurumaa published a commentary on Bhagavad Gita in both English and Hindi Languages. • Sri Sri Ravi Shankar published a commentary on Bhagvad Gita. == Translations and modern commentaries==

Persian translations In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the Mughal Empire, multiple Persian translations of the Gita were completed. English translations The first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita was published by Charles Wilkins in 1785. The Wilkins translation had an introduction to the Gita by Warren Hastings. Soon the work was translated into other European languages such as French (1787), German, and Russian. In 1849, the Weleyan Mission Press, Bangalore published The Bhagavat-Gita, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures, with Sanskrit, Canarese and English in parallel columns, edited by Rev. John Garrett, with the effort being supported by Sir Mark Cubbon. In 1981, Larson stated that "a complete listing of Gita translations and a related secondary bibliography would be nearly endless". According to Larson, there is "a massive translational tradition in English, pioneered by the British, solidly grounded philologically by the French and Germans, provided with its indigenous roots by a rich heritage of modern Indian comment and reflection, extended into various disciplinary areas by Americans, and having generated in our time a broadly based cross-cultural awareness of the importance of the Bhagavad Gita both as an expression of a specifically Indian spirituality and as one of the great religious "classics" of all time." and are in part an interpretative reconstruction of the original Sanskrit text that differ in their "friendliness to the reader", and in the amount of "violence to the original Gita text". The translations and interpretations of the Gita have been so diverse that these have been used to support contradictory political and philosophical values. For example, Galvin Flood and Charles Martin note that interpretations of the Gita have been used to support "pacifism to aggressive nationalism" in politics, from "monism to theism" in philosophy. According to William Johnson, the synthesis of ideas in the Gita is such that it can bear almost any shade of interpretation. A translation "can never fully reproduce an original and no translation is transparent", states Richard Davis, but in the case of the Gita the linguistic and cultural distance for many translators is large and steep which adds to the challenge and affects the translation. For some native translators, their personal beliefs, motivations, and subjectivity affect their understanding, their choice of words and interpretation. Some translations by Indians, with or without Western co-translators, have "orientalist", "apologetic", "Neo-Vedantic" or "guru phenomenon" biases. The most significant French translation of the Gita, according to J. A. B. van Buitenen, was published by Émile Senart in 1922. More recently, a new French translation was produced by the Indologist Alain Porte in 2004. Swami Rambhadracharya released the first Braille version of the scripture, with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi commentary, on 30 November 2007. Paramahansa Yogananda's commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called God Talks with Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita has been translated into Spanish, German, Thai and Hindi so far. The book is significant in that, unlike other commentaries of the Bhagavad Gita, which focus on karma yoga, jnana yoga, and bhakti yoga in relation to the Gita, Yogananda's work stresses the training of one's mind, or raja yoga. Indian languages The Gita Press has published the Gita in multiple Indian languages. R. Raghava Iyengar translated the Gita into Tamil in the sandam metre poetic form. The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust associated with ISKCON has re-translated and published A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's 1972 English translation of the Gita in 56 non-Indian languages. In Douglas Cuomo's ''Arjuna's Dilemma'', the philosophical dilemma faced by Arjuna is dramatised in operatic form with a blend of Indian and Western music styles. The 1993 Sanskrit film, Bhagavad Gita, directed by G. V. Iyer won the 1993 National Film Award for Best Film. The 1995 novel by Steven Pressfield, and its adaptation as the 2000 golf movie The Legend of Bagger Vance by Robert Redford has parallels to the Bhagavad Gita, according to Steven J. Rosen. Steven Pressfield acknowledges that the Gita was his inspiration, the golfer character in his novel is Arjuna, and the caddie is Krishna, states Rosen. The movie, however, uses the plot but glosses over the teachings unlike in the novel. ==Duty (svadharma) and the caste-system==

Neo-Hindu interpretation of svadharma Arjuna is advised by Krishna to do his sva-dharma, the "dharma [duty] of a particular varna." Since Arjuna belongs to the warrior (kshatriya) varna (social class), Krishna is telling Arjuna to act as a warrior. Neo-Hindus, preceded by medieval commentators like Dnyaneshwar, have preferred to translate svadharma not as class-related duty, or dharma as religion, but interpret it as "everyone must follow his [own] sva-dharma." According to Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296), the Gita ultimately shows that caste differences are not important. For Dnyaneshwar, people err when they see themselves as distinct from each other and Krishna, and these distinctions vanish as soon as they accept, understand and enter with love unto Krishna. According to Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–1894), to render svadharma in English one must ask 'What is the sva-dharma for the non-Hindus', as the Lord did not ordain dharma only for Indians [Hindus] and "make all the others dharma-less." According to Hacker, this is an attempt to "universalize Hinduism." According to Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), sva-dharma in the Gita does not mean "caste duty", rather it means the duty that comes with one's life situation (mother, father, husband, wife) or profession (soldier, judge, teacher, doctor). For Vivekananda, the Gita was an egalitarian scripture that rejected caste and other hierarchies because of its verses such as 13.27—28, which states "He who sees the Supreme Lord dwelling equally in all beings, the Imperishable in things that perish, he sees verily. For seeing the Lord as the same everywhere present, he does not destroy the Self by the Self, and thus he goes to the highest goal." Aurobindo (1872–1950) modernises the concept of dharma by internalising it, away from the social order and its duties towards one's capacities, which leads to radical individualism, "finding the fulfilment of the purpose of existence in the individual alone." He deduced from the Gita the doctrine that "the functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn, gift, and capacities", that the individual should "develop freely" and thereby would be best able to serve society. Gandhi's (1869–1948) view differed from Aurobindo's view. He recognised in the concept of sva-dharma his idea of svadeshi (sometimes spelt swadeshi), the idea that "man owes his service above all to those who are nearest to him by birth and situation." To him, svadeshi was "sva-dharma applied to one's immediate environment." According to Jacqueline Hirst, the universalist neo-Hindu interpretations of dharma in the Gita are modernist readings, though any study of pre-modern distant foreign cultures is inherently subject to suspicions about "control of knowledge" and bias on the various sides. Hindus have their own understanding of dharma that goes much beyond the Gita or any particular Hindu text. Criticism of svadharma and caste-system The Gita has also been cited and criticized as a Hindu text that supports varna-dharma (personal duty) and the caste system. B. R. Ambedkar, born in a Dalit family and served as the first Law Minister in the First Nehru Ministry, criticized the text for its stance on caste and for "defending certain dogmas of religion on philosophical grounds". According to Jimmy Klausen, Ambedkar in his essay Krishna and his Gita stated that the Gita was a "tool" of Brahmanical Hinduism and for others such as Mahatma Gandhi and Lokmanya Tilak. To Ambedkar, states Klausen, it is a text of "mostly barbaric, religious particularisms" offering "a defence of the Kshatriya duty to make war and kill, the assertion that varna derives from birth rather than worth or aptitude, and the injunction to perform karma" neither perfunctorily nor egotistically. In his Myth and Reality, D.D. Kosambi argued that "practically anything can be read into the Gita by a determined person, without denying the validity of a class system." Kosambi argued that the Gita was a scripture that supported the superiority of the higher varnas while seeing all other varnas as "defiled by their very birth, though they may in after-life be freed by their faith in the god who degrades them so casually in this one." Narla also critiques the Gita for stating that those who are not kshatriyas or Brahmins are "born from sinful wombs". == The Gita and war ==

, from the Mahabharata. Allegory of war Unlike any other religious scripture, the Bhagavad Gita broadcasts its message in the centre of a battlefield. Several modern Indian writers have interpreted the battlefield setting as an allegory for "the war within". Eknath Easwaran writes that the Gitas subject is "the war within, the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious". Swami Nikhilananda, takes Arjuna as an allegory of Ātman, Krishna as an allegory of Brahman, Arjuna's chariot as the body, and Dhritarashtra as the ignorant mind. Nikhilananda's allegorical interpretation is shared by Huston Smith. Swami Vivekananda interprets the first discourse in the Gita as well as the "Kurukshetra war" allegorically. Vivekananda states that "when we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil". Mahatma Gandhi, in his commentary on the Gita, interprets the battle as an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna embodies man's higher impulses struggling against evil. In Aurobindo's view, Krishna was a historical figure, but his significance in the Gita is as a "symbol of the divine dealings with humanity", while Arjuna typifies a "struggling human soul". Promotion of just war and duty Scholars such as Steven Rosen, Laurie L. Patton and Stephen Mitchell have seen in the Gita a religious defence of the warrior class (Kshatriya Varna) duty (svadharma), which is to wage war with courage. They do not see only an allegorical teaching but also a real defence of just war. Indian independence leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak saw the Gita as a text which defended war when necessary and used it to promote armed rebellion against colonial rule. Lajpat Rai wrote an article on the "Message of the Bhagavad Gita". He saw the main message as the bravery and courage of Arjuna to fight as a warrior. Bal Gangadhar Tilak saw the Gita as defending killing when necessary for the betterment of society, such as, for example, the killing of Afzal Khan. Noted author Christopher Isherwood suffered the death of his father in WWI and saw no serious effort by the Allies to avoid plunging head-on into the next war. In his novels, The Berlin Stories, he describes life in Germany as the Nazis rose to power. In the late 1930s, with advice from and influence of Aldous Huxley and Gerald Heard he became a practising pacifist and Conscientiousness Objector, working with the Quakers, doing alternative service to help settle Jewish refugees fleeing the war. In 1944, Isherwood worked with Swami Prabhavananda of the Vedanta Society of Southern California to translate the Bhagavad Gita into English. In the Appendix, there is an essay written by Isherwood titled, The Gita and War. He argues that in certain circumstances, it would be quite alright to refuse to fight. In Arjuna's particular circumstances, since it is a righteous war, and he is a warrior by birth and trade, he must fight. ...every action, under certain circumstances and for certain people, maybe a stepping-stone to spiritual growth—if it is done in the spirit of non-attachment. There is no question, here, of doing evil that good may come. The Gita does not countenance such opportunism. Arjuna is to do the best he knows, in order to pass beyond that best to better. Ethics, war and violence Soon after Krishna's peace mission fails, Krishna in the Gita persuades Arjuna to wage war where the enemy includes some of his own relatives and friends. In light of the Ahimsa (non-violence) teachings in Hindu scriptures, the Gita has been criticized as violating the Ahimsa value, or alternatively, as supporting political violence. The justification of political violence when peaceful protests and all else fails, states Varma, has been a fairly common feature of modern Indian political thought along with the mighty antithesis of Gandhian thought on non-violence. During the independence movement in India, Indians (especially the Hindus) considered the active burning and drowning of British goods. While technically illegal under colonial legislation, these acts were viewed as a moral and just war for the sake of liberty and righteous values of the type that the Gita discusses. According to Nicholas Owen, the influential Hindu nationalist (and the father of Hindutva) Veer Savarkar often turned to Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, arguing that the text justified violence against those who would harm Mother India. Narla Venkateswara Rao, in his book-length critique of the text titled The Truth About the Gita, criticizes the ethical teachings of the Gita. He argues that the ethics of the Gita are so ambiguous, that one can use it to justify any ethical position and primarily supports a warrior ethos. In his Myth and Reality, the Indian historian Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi argued that the Gita was written as a religious text that could provide support for the actions of the upper castes, including the warrior caste. These sorts of exhortations to battle would not have been uncommon in ancient India as it was the job of Indian bards. Kosambi writes that in the Gita, "the high god repeatedly emphasizes the great virtue of non-killing (ahimsa), yet the entire discourse is an incentive to war." He also cites the Gita, which states: "If slain, you gain heaven; if victorious, the earth; so up, son of Kunti, and concentrate on fighting." In his introduction to his translation of the Gita, Purushottama Lal argues that while Arjuna appears as a pacifist, concerned with ahimsa, Krishna "is the militarist" who convinces him to kill. According to Lal, Krishna makes use of a "startling" argument to convince Arjuna to kill, which Lal outlines as "the Ātman is eternal; only the body dies; so, go ahead and kill – you will kill only the body, the atman will remain unaffected [2:19-21]." For Gandhi, states Vajpeyi, ahimsa is the "relationship between self and other" as he and his fellow Indians battled against colonial rule. Gandhian ahimsa is in fact "the essence of the entire Gita", according to Vajpeyi. Thomas Merton, the Trappist monk and author of books on Zen Buddhism, concurs with Gandhi and states that the Gita is not teaching violence nor propounding a "make war" ideology. Instead, it is teaching peace and discussing one's duty to examine what is right and then act with pure intentions, when one faces difficult and repugnant choices. == Psychotherapeutic interpretation ==

Balodhi and Keshavan referenced the Gita as a source for developing a culturally sensitive psychotherapeutic model. Krishna, has been compared to a cognitive therapist, in relation to Arjuna, who suffers from both physical and psychological symptoms of mental disturbance. Physically, Arjuna's mouth dries up, his limbs tremble, and his hairs stand on their ends. Psychologically, he faces anxiety, confusion, and negative self-evaluation. == See also ==