History and culture of substituted amphetamines

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist, Lazăr Edeleanu, who named the drug phenylisopropylamine. Shortly after the first synthesis of amphetamine, Nagai synthesized methamphetamine from ephedrine in 1893. Also in the 1950s, the Japanese Ministry of Health banned stimulant production, although drug companies continued to produce stimulants that wound up on the black market. From 1951 to 1954, a series of acts were passed by the Japanese government to try to stop the production and sale of stimulants; however, the production and sale of stimulant drugs continued through criminal syndicates such as Yakuza criminal organizations. On the streets, it is also known as S, Shabu, and Speed, in addition to its old trademarked name. The United States in the 1960s saw the start of significant use of clandestinely manufactured methamphetamine, most of which was produced by motorcycle gangs. Mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs. After decades of reported abuse, in 1965 the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) limited amphetamine to prescription use, but non-medical use remained common. By the 1990s, roughly 180 state parties were signatories to the treaty and consequently, it became heavily regulated in most countries. Beginning in the 1990s in the United States, the production of methamphetamine in users' own homes for personal use became popular as well. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be purely synthetic. Substituted amphetamine use has historically been especially common among Major League Baseball players and is usually known by the slang term "greenies". In 2006, MLB banned the use of amphetamine. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. However, MLB has received some criticism because the punitive consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for anabolic steroid use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing. Methamphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration during driving, especially in the decades prior to the signing by former president Ronald Reagan of Executive Order 12564, which initiated mandatory random drug testing of all truck drivers and employees of other DOT-regulated industries. Up to a quarter of college students use Adderall to help them focus on their studies instead of its intended purpose of helping people with ADHD. This use sometimes continues after the student graduates college due to its addictive properties. In recent decades, amphetamines, especially Adderall, have been increasingly used by young white-collar workers who work long hours at demanding work. Many felt drug use was necessary to perform adequately. In the period following the Covid-19 pandemic prescription of ADHD medication increased by over 14%, contributing to shortages of Adderall which reach their peak during October of 2022. Young adults and women make up a notable proportion of these new prescriptions. Military use (April 1941) praising the new German stimulant Pervitin (methamphetamine hydrochloride) as a safe sisu'' pill that banishes fatigue and boosts soldiers’ endurance and morale. At the time, Finland cooperated with Nazi Germany during World War II. One of the earliest uses of amphetamine and methamphetamine was during World War II when they were used by Axis and Allied forces. As early as 1919, Akira Ogata synthesized methamphetamine via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. Later, the chemists Hauschild and Dobke from the German pharmaceutical company Temmler developed an easier method for converting ephedrine to methamphetamine. As a result, Temmler could market it on a large scale as a nonprescription drug under the trade name Pervitin (methamphetamine hydrochloride). Pervitin was commonly used by the German and Finnish militaries. Adolf Hitler is rumored to have begun using amphetamine occasionally after 1937, and to have become addicted to it in late 1942; although this is disputed by historians who argue he was suffering from health issues. It was widely distributed across German military ranks and divisions, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel, with millions of tablets being distributed for its stimulant effects and to induce extended wakefulness. More than 35 million three-milligram doses of Pervitin were manufactured for the German army and air force between April and July 1940; however, this amounts to only three tablets per serviceman a month. As with the rest of the world at the time, the side effects of methamphetamine were not well studied, and regulation was not seen as necessary. In the 1940s and 1950s, the drug was widely administered to Japanese industrial workers to increase their productivity. In Finland, Pervitin was colloquially known as höökipulveri ("pep powder"). Its use was essentially restricted to special forces, especially to long-range commandos. Amphetamine was also given to Allied bomber pilots during World War II to sustain them by fighting off fatigue and enhancing focus during long flights. The Tarnak Farm incident during the War in Afghanistan (2001-21), in which an American F-16 pilot killed several friendly Canadian soldiers on the ground, was blamed by the pilot on his use of amphetamine. A nonjudicial (UCMJ Article 15) U.S. Air Force hearing rejected the pilot's claim. The USAF banned the use of dextroamphetamine, and due to amphetamines' addiction potential in some people, newer wakefulness-promoting drugs such as modafinil have been seen as possible safer alternatives for military use (as a go pill) in some countries, including the United States. ==Society and culture==