Relevance of IQ tests In
psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by
IQ scores that are determined by IQ tests. In general, higher IQ scores are associated with better outcomes in life. However, while IQ test scores show a high degree of inter-test
reliability, and predict certain forms of achievement effectively, their
construct validity as a holistic measure of human intelligence is considered dubious. He argues that
psychometric (IQ) tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence. A criticism of Gardner's theory is that it has never been tested, or subjected to peer review, by Gardner or anyone else, and indeed that it is
unfalsifiable. Others (e.g. Locke, 2005) suggest that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence (specific aptitude theory) implies a political—rather than scientific—agenda, intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals, rather than recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual capacities. Schmidt and Hunter suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability, or
"g", has not received empirical support. On the other hand,
Jerome Bruner agreed with Gardner that the intelligences were "useful fictions", and went on to state that "his approach is so far beyond the data-crunching of mental testers that it deserves to be cheered."
Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the
triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence: • Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. • Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task. • Practical intelligence is bound to a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context. The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be understood. Sternberg updated the triarchic theory and renamed it to the Theory of Successful Intelligence. and supported by decades of neuroimaging research, the
PASS Theory of Intelligence (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and the following four processes: • Planning involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. • Attention is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. • Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between "he had a shower before breakfast" and "he had breakfast before a shower." • Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS theory is heavily indebted both to Luria and to studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence.
Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories In
Piaget's theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, the child creates increasingly more accurate models of the world which enable the child to interact with the world more effectively. One example is
object permanence with which the child develops a model in which objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. These four main stages are: • sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years) • pre-operational stage (2–7 years) • concrete operational stage (7–11 years) • formal operations stage (11–16 years) Progress through these stages is correlated with, but not identical to psychometric IQ. Initially younger children were not studied, because if at the age of four years a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child presumably could not either. The results show however that children that are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation, but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost temporarily because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates more candy with a longer line of candy, or because of the inability for a four-year-old to reverse situations.
Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as spatial or social. Subsequent neuroimaging and lesion studies report general consensus with the theory. The "investment theory" by Cattell states that the
individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (
gc) are partially attributed to the "investment" of
gf, thus suggesting the involvement of
fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process. The investment theory suggests that personality traits affect "actual" ability, and not scores on an
IQ test. Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation as well, Intelligence A (physiological), that could be seen as a semblance of
fluid intelligence and Intelligence B (experiential), similar to
crystallized intelligence.
Intelligence compensation theory (ICT) The intelligence compensation theory states that individuals who are comparatively less intelligent work harder and more methodically, and become more resolute and thorough (more conscientious) in order to achieve goals, to compensate for their "lack of intelligence" whereas more intelligent individuals do not require traits/behaviours associated with the personality factor
conscientiousness to progress as they can rely on the strength of their cognitive abilities as opposed to structure or effort.
Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and cognition The view of cognitive ability has evolved over the years, and , comprising not only cognitive, but motivational, social, and behavioural aspects as well. These facets work together to perform numerous tasks. An essential skill often overlooked is that of managing emotions and aversive experiences that can compromise one's quality of thought and activity. Bandura bridges the link between intelligence and success by crediting individual differences in
self-efficacy. Bandura's theory identifies the difference between possessing skills and being able to apply them in challenging situations. The theory suggests that individuals with the same level of knowledge and skill may perform badly, averagely, or excellently based on differences in self-efficacy. A key role of cognition is to allow for one to predict events and in turn devise methods to deal with these events effectively. These skills are dependent on processing of unclear and ambiguous stimuli. People must be able to rely on their reserve of knowledge to identify, develop, and execute options. They must be able to apply the learning acquired from previous experiences. Thus, a stable sense of self-efficacy is essential to stay focused on tasks in the face of challenging situations. Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and intelligence suggests that individuals with a relatively low sense of self-efficacy in any field will avoid challenges. This effect is heightened when they perceive the situations as
personal threats. When failure occurs, they recover from it more slowly than others, and credit the failure to an insufficient aptitude. On the other hand, persons with high levels of self-efficacy hold that leads to effective performance.
Process, personality, intelligence and knowledge theory (PPIK) Developed by Ackerman, the PPIK (process, personality, intelligence, and knowledge) theory further develops the approach on intelligence as proposed by Cattell, the
Investment theory, and
Hebb, suggesting a distinction between
intelligence as knowledge and
intelligence as process (two concepts that are comparable and related to
gc and
gf respectively, but broader and closer to Hebb's notions of "Intelligence A" and "Intelligence B") and integrating these factors with elements such as personality, motivation, and interests. Ackerman describes the difficulty of distinguishing process from knowledge, as content cannot be eliminated from any ability test. Personality traits are not significantly correlated with the
intelligence as process aspect except in the context of psychopathology. One exception to this generalization has been the finding of
sex differences in cognitive abilities, specifically abilities in mathematical and spatial form. On the other hand, the
intelligence as knowledge factor has been associated with personality traits of Openness and Typical Intellectual Engagement,{{multiref2
Latent inhibition It appears that
Latent inhibition, the phenomenon of familiar stimuli having a postponed reaction time when compared with unfamiliar stimuli, has a positive correlation with
creativity. == Improving ==