Humboldt penguin

Humboldt penguins are medium-sized penguins, growing to long and a weight of . The sex of the Humboldt penguin cannot be recognised via differences in plumage, as they are monomorphic. The male is heavier and larger than the females. Their sex can be determined via head width and bill length; the male has a longer bill than the female. Vocalisation The Humboldt penguin has different calls that it uses to communicate in different ways. The function of its calls are consistent among Spheniscus species. If an individual comes too close to an adult Humboldt penguin, the Yell is a warning call which is followed by pecking or chasing if ignored. A higher density of penguins leads to more territorial and aggressive behaviours, which leads to more Yells. Humboldt penguins are confined to land until they finish moulting. == Etymology ==

Both the Humboldt penguin and the Humboldt current were named after Alexander von Humboldt. It is known in Peru as the , which translates to "baby-bird", due to their waddling gait and flightless wings held out suggesting the image of an infant toddling on the beach. == Distribution and habitat ==

The Humboldt penguin is a top predator endemic to the west coast of South America. The Humboldt penguin's breeding distribution ranges from southern Chile along the dry and arid coastal regions of the Atacama Desert former Bolivia to subtropical Isla Foca in north Peru. Its range is restricted to the coast and offshore islands affected by the Humboldt current, which provides a continuous supply of nutrients and food, thus supporting huge populations of seabird. In Chile, the most important breeding colony is at Isla Chañaral. == Ecology ==

Diet The Humboldt penguin feeds predominantly on pelagic schooling fish. The consumption of cephalopods and crustaceans vary between populations. Northern colonies consume primarily Atlantic saury and garfish, whilst southern populations primarily consume anchovy, Araucanian herring, silver-side, pilchard and squid. There are seasonal differences in the Humboldt penguin's diet that reflect the changes in availability of fish species across seasons. Humboldt penguins leave their islands for foraging after sunrise and different populations have different preferred foraging distances from the colony. They spend more time foraging during overnight trips. Fish are mostly seized from below through short, shallow dives. They also dive less often than breeding penguins. Courtship During courtship, the Humboldt penguins bow their heads to each other and exchange mutual glances with each eye, alternatively. In the ecstatic display to attract a partner, the bird extends its head vertically, collapses its chest, flaps its wings and emits a loud call resembling the braying of a donkey. They are a true migrant between Peru, Former Bolivia territory and Chile. == Threats ==

El Niño-La Niña dynamics The ecosystem of the Humboldt current is affected by the El Niño phenomenon. During the El Niño, upwelling of nutrient-rich bottom water in the south-eastern Pacific Ocean is depressed, as well as sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) value increases. This makes them susceptible to changes in prey availability due to overfishing. Human presence Humboldt penguins are extremely sensitive to human presence, with little habituation potential. Norway rats and black rats also predate on eggs. Feral cats and dogs consume chicks, fledglings and adult Humboldt penguins. Oil spills related to port and shipping activities have impacted many species of penguins across the southern hemisphere. In 2017, Andes Iron proposed to construct a mineral export port near the Humboldt Penguin National Reserve in Chile's Coquimbo region. The proposal was rejected on the grounds that the environmental impact would be unacceptable. The decision was welcomed by tour operators and environmentalists. Oceana was one of the non-governmental organisations lobbying for the rejection of the port proposal. Andes Iron challenged the decision, and environmental approval for the Dominga mine and Cruz Grande port project was eventually granted. Oceana has since challenged the proponents compliance at the work site and as of 2020 continues to lobby for the abandonment of the project and protection of region's rich marine biodiversity. If constructed, the Dominga complex will include an open pit copper mine, processing facility, desalination plant and port. == History of Population Decline ==

Over-exploitation of guano The historical breeding grounds for the Humboldt penguin were guano layers which covered islands of the Peruvian, formerly Bolivian coasts and northerly Chilean coasts in which the birds could burrow. The birds were also frequently killed by fishermen and guano workers for their oil and skin. The decline of the Humboldt penguin population is attributed to the harvest of guano in the 1800s, which led to the destruction of breeding grounds and to human disturbance. 1982–83 El Niño phenomenon Before the 1982–83 El Niño event, the total number of individuals of Humboldt penguin individuals was estimated to be 20,000. The 1982–83 El Niño phenomenon led to a major decline in the Humboldt penguin population. The combination of an environment changed by human developments as well as the long duration and strong intensity of the event that year led to major effects on the fecundity and survival of the Humboldt penguins. The consequences were a 65% decline in the Humboldt penguin population, migration towards the south and the failure of the 1982 class of hatchlings. The surviving population in 1984 was estimated to be between 2,100 and 3,000 penguins and all were adults. ==Conservation==

Humboldt penguins were given legal protection in 1977 by the Peruvian Government and listed in Appendix I of the Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). Both Peru and Chile have implemented the CITES under national law. In August 2010 the Humboldt penguin of Chile and Peru, was granted protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Most penguins breed within protected areas. though that decision was subsequently overturned. As of August 2020, the species is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, with a declining population of roughly 23,800 mature adults. Climate change, commercial overfishing of main prey species (sardines and anchovy) and bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries are all contributing factors in the species' decline. Rats, feral cats and dog attacks threaten some colonies. Historically, the Humboldt penguin population was impacted by the extraction of guano from their breeding colonies, which reduced the available habitat for burrowing and nesting. ==In captivity==

In addition to their home waters near South America, Humboldt penguins can be found in zoos all around the world, including Spain, Germany, India, South Korea, Ireland, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and other locations. Mr. Sea The oldest penguin at Woodland Park Zoo and one of the oldest penguins in North America, Mr. Sea was euthanized after a decline in activity and appetite. He was 2 months short of his 32nd birthday. The average age for a Humbolt penguin that survives its first year is 17.6 years. He has 12 viable grandchicks, great-grandchicks, and great-great grandchicks. Escape from Tokyo Zoo One of the 135 Humboldt penguins from Tokyo Sea Life Park (Kasai Rinkai Suizokuen) lived in Tokyo Bay for 82 days after apparently scaling the 4-metre-high wall and managing to get through a barbed-wire fence into the bay. The penguin, known only by its number (337), was recaptured by the zoo keepers in late May 2012. US discovery In 1953, a Humboldt penguin was found in The Bronx, New York, US. It is not known whether the animal had escaped from a private collection or whether it was a vagrant but the local zoo's population was fully accounted for. Same-sex raising of young In 2009 at the Bremerhaven Zoo in Germany, two adult male Humboldt penguins adopted an egg that had been abandoned by its biological parents. After the egg hatched, the two penguins raised, protected, cared for, and fed the chick in the same manner that heterosexual penguin couples raise their own offspring. A further example of this kind of behavior came in 2014, when Jumbs and Kermit, two Humboldt Penguins at Wingham Wildlife Park, became the center of international media attention as two males who had pair bonded a number of years earlier and then successfully hatched and reared an egg given to them as surrogate parents after the mother abandoned it halfway through incubation. ==Gallery of captive animals==

File:Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti)-upper body.jpg|Upper body File:Humboldt Penguin Spheniscus humboldti Newquay Zoo.jpg|Humboldt penguin at Newquay Zoo File:Spheniscus humboldti (pair).jpg|St Louis Zoo File:Penguincotswoldwildlifepark.jpg|A pair "kissing" at Cotswold Wildlife Park File:Schwimmender-Pinguin.jpg|Swimming underwater File:Spheniscus humboldti -Munich Zoo-8.jpg|Back File:Spheniscus humboldti -Dublin Zoo -swimming-8a.jpg|At the Dublin Zoo File:Humboldt Penguin underwater zoo Bremerhaven Germany.ogv|Humboldt penguin underwater at the Bremerhaven Zoo File:Humboldt penguin during moult.jpg|Humboldt penguin during moult at the Cornish Seal Sanctuary File:Penguin at Oregon Zoo.jpg|At the Oregon Zoo File:HumboldtPenguinsMumbaiPrd1.jpg|Humboldt penguins at Jijamata Udyaan, Mumbai, India File:Humboldt Penguins at Twycross Zoo.jpg|Humboldt penguins at Twycross Zoo File:WPZ - Humboldt Penguin 04.jpg|At the Woodland Park Zoo File:Humboldt Penguins 0132.JPG|In captivity at Brookfield Zoo File:Spheniscus humboldti MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.43.14.jpg|Spheniscus humboldti - MHNT File:Pingüino de Humboldt en el Parque De Las Leyendas.jpg|Swimming at the Parque de las Leyendas ==References==