Ascendance and early life Ascendance Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn was born in
Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of
Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in, the former
Sharif of Mecca. As a member of the
Hashemite dynasty, he was a descendant of
Muhammad in the 37th generation through his grandson
Hasan bin Ali. His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a
Circassian. He belonged to the Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the
Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the
Sharifate of Mecca since the accession of their ancestor
Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed
Mecca since the 11th century.
Power struggles and birth In 1827,
Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in was appointed Sharif, the first Sharif of the Dhawu Awn branch and ending the Dhawu Zayd’s control of the amirate, which had lasted since 1718
. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif
Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd, the very same Sharif whom Muhammad ibn al-Abd al-Mu'in had succeeded. After his dismissal in 1851, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Mu‘in was arrested and exiled to Istanbul by Ottoman authorities. of Hussein bin Ali probably in
Hejaz, 1890 During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding the Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the
Najd and the eastern regions of
Hejaz to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the
Sharifate of Mecca then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins, including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse, a type of vernacular poetry (
malhun) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting. His appointment came during a time of cooperation between Arab Notables and the new regime in Istanbul , when constitutional reforms were seen interrupted at granting more local autonomy. However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the
Young Turk Revolution, which brought the
Young Turks (
Committee of Union and Progress) to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are the lands of God in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of God [...] The constitution of the lands of God is the
Shariah of God and the
Sunnah of His Prophet". His reply reflected a long standing political practice of the Hejaz, where governance rested on Islamic law and Sharifian custom as opposed to Ottoman secular constitutionalism. In early 1914 he and his family discussed possible Ottoman retaliation, but their concern centered on the preservation of Hejazi autonomy advocating for a broader Arab political program. He had a
Shafi'i and
Hanafi education, but also allied with the
Malikis and opposed the
Wahhabis, at a time when adherence to a
madhhab was more fluid. Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted Additionally, the increasing centralization of the Ottoman Empire, the progressive prohibition of
Arabic in teaching,
Turkification policies, and the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas worried and frightened Arabs throughout the empire. In the Hijaz, concern over Ottoman centralization was connected to longstanding autonomy of the Sharifiate and its religious basis rather than to emerging ethnic nationalism. Furthermore, in April 1915, the Ottoman government began a
policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides. Local opposition to the railway stemmed from fears that direct military communication would diminish Sharifian authority and allow central rule over tribal regions. who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali. These oppositions with the Turks became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in Arab society and Bedouin society; and many rival tribes to the
Hashemites rallied behind their leadership. A nationalist and anti-colonial Arab movement developed, mainly in
Ottoman Syria, where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for the restoration of the
caliphate in the hands of a
Quraysh, and especially for the acquisition of Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire. The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by
Enver Pasha to assassinate Hussein. All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class, and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as a religious and anti-colonial one. Twenty days after the start of the
Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire, Hussein bin Ali's son,
Faisal, met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization
Al-Fatat in
Damascus. They assured him of their support in case of revolt and express willingness to support his leadership if he initiated a revolt. When Hussein took up the pan-Arab claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became the leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of
pan-Arabism. During
World War I, Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son,
Abdullah, who had served in the
Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration. and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with
Sir Henry McMahon; over the period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon was in contact with
British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence. Earlier, in February and April of 1914, Hussein's son met British officials in Cairo to assess potential support should a clash with Ottoman authorities arise. The British avoided commitments at the time, and discussion remained exploratory. However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire. The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date. The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the persecutions and abuse carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support. to explain why he was revolting. Hussein decided to join the
Allied camp immediately, because of information that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman government in favor of
Sharif Ali Haidar, leader of the rival Zaʻid family. The much-publicized executions of the Arab nationalist leaders in Damascus led Hussein to fear for his life if he was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar. depicting the sons of Hussein bin Ali as they liberate
Mecca, 16 July 1916|upright In the
Battle of Mecca, there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen. Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to the veil covering the
Kaaba and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site. Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916. On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of
majlis where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him
Malik al-Arab, King of the Arabs". During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the
Allies didn't want to give, seeing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the
Western front, among others. This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in the areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the
Tafas massacre against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners. After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them. The battle happened at the same time as the
Vardar offensive in the
Balkans, which managed to overrun
Bulgarian defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately
Austria-Hungary. Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards
Damascus, which he took the 1st of October 1918. ,
Transjordan, before he left for
Aqaba, 1921When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz, he also declared himself King of the Arab lands (
malik bilad-al-Arab). He undertook the last major restoration of the
Masjid al-Haram in 1920 and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of
al-Aqsa mosque, for which he funded 26,672 liras.
Armenian genocide Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the
Armenian refugees and those residing in his lands from the
Armenian genocide. Armenian deportees began to arrive in Ottoman Syria in mid-1915, and large numbers remained in the region through 1916 with massacres peaking spring and late 1916.Survivors continued around Aleppo, Rakka, and Deir ez- Zor into early 1917. First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to the world's condemnation the atrocities
committed against the Greeks and Armenians, atrocities that our holy law can only disapprove of". In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people." "What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are the Protected People of the Muslims (
Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment". This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination".Armenian survivors were still present in scattered communities as late as 1917, making such protections meaningful for thousands who had escaped killing during 1916. Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects. According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening. He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the Syrian desert aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees. According to testimonies, this method is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as
Druzes.
Following World War I In the aftermath of the war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made
King of Syria, but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under
mandate rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of
Iraq and
Transjordan, respectively.
The issue of Palestine and deterioration in British relationship Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on the subject of Palestine. In January and February 1918, Hussein received the
Hogarth Message and
Bassett Letter in response to his requests for an explanation of the
Balfour Declaration and
Sykes-Picot Agreement respectively. Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he was ready to accept Jewish people in
Palestine, During the negotiations, the boundaries had been discussed explicitly, and British representatives had accepted almost all of the proposed limits. The assurances are understood as binding commitments for the postwar settlement. McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as the areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France. Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made. Hussein saw British subsidy reduction as the British minimizing services he provided. During the campaign, British commanders had privately acknowledged the revolt helped to tie down Ottoman forces that would have likely been used against him. The
British were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as
Colonel Wilson stated in secret correspondence : His refusal should be kept in context of previous negotiations that had been made. By 1917 his kingship had been recognized by the Allied governments, following the months in which his forces repelled advancements by the Ottomans. Other accounts, such as a
Reuters dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz". A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924. Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein is evidently enthroned as caliph in
Baghdad during the Friday prayer. of Hussein bin Ali in
Mecca, 1916–1918The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding the family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca.
, quoted by The Times'', on the approval given to Hussein's caliphate by Vehideddin, a nickname of
Mehmed VI In the same perspective, he financially supported the members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras. and more generally Arabic Muslim population. They believed that having a new influential caliph could risk reviving
pan-Islamism, causing instability in French Muslim colonies in the event of a conflict, and potentially giving the Red Sea to the British. it comprised both
Sunni and
Shia Muslims and was thus arguably one of the most inclusive Islamic Congresses in history. The Congress held twelve sessions before being indefinitely adjourned due to the advance of Saudi forces. because he was invaded and defeated quickly by
Abdulaziz ibn Saud. During this period, his position was weakened by the perception that the wartime agreement had not been fulfilled, which diminished potential support from other Arab regions. which eventually took Mecca, Medina, and Jeddah. The British offered several times to assist him and to stop supporting the Saudis, in exchange for his recognition of the
Balfour Declaration, which he refused each time. According to the
Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought, the British not only supported Ibn Saud against Hussein bin Ali but they also supported him subsequently against the
Ikhwan. Hussein attempted to make appeals to the
League of Nations, Muslim powers, and Western powers; however, they did not intervene and merely monitored the events. The British were highly negative towards him since he assumed the caliphal title and refused to support him. until his death.
Exile King Hussein was then forced to flee to
Amman,
Transjordan, where his son
Abdullah was
Emir. He interpreted his having to flee as humiliation because since he was treated a private individual with restricted status, he was denied recognition he felt entitled to and was forced to struggle for his own dignity. Britain – responding to Ibn Saud's plea that the Sharif be expelled from Aqaba – exiled him from Aqaba to
British-controlled Cyprus. He lived in
Nicosia from 1925, with his sons coming to visit him at some times, even if his relationships with them were strained, except for Zeid who came to visit him the most. According to the British governor of
Cyprus,
Ronald Storrs, when he went to see Hussein, he found his son
Zeid reading him the commentary of
al-Bukhari on the
Quran. He began to fall ill as early as 1928, but his favorite wife,
Adila Khanum, died in 1929, which exacerbated his illness. She was buried at
Hala Sultan Tekke, the largest Muslim shrine on the island. the British became increasingly inclined to send him back to the Middle East. They feared that his death would not only stir resentment among Arabs towards the United Kingdom but also potentially strain their relationships with the Hashemite rulers, all of whom were allies in the Middle East. He died on June 4, 1931. Hussein bin Ali was buried in
Jerusalem in 1931, as he wasn't able to be buried in Mecca, as he wanted and as was the norm for
Sharifs of Mecca until then, for
Ibn Saud didn't want to allow him being buried there. Local dignitaries and leaders wanted him to be buried in the al-Aqsa mosque compound. he was buried in Jerusalem: inside the
Arghūniyya, a building on the
Haram esh-Sharif or "
Temple Mount", in a walled enclosure decorated with white marble and carpets. His son Faisal, with whom the relationship was the worse at that point, didn't attend his funerals, claiming he had "government business" to attend to. ==Marriage and children==