According to the text reconstructed by
J. W. McCrindle (1877) and Richard Stoneman (2022), Megasthenes'
Indica describes India as follows:
Geography India is a quadrilateral-shaped country, bounded by the
Great Sea in the east and the south,
Indus River in the west, and Emodus mountain in the north. Beyond the Emodus lies the
Sacae-inhabited part of
Scythia. Besides Scythia, the countries of
Bactria and
Ariana border India. India's northern border reaches the extremities of the
Tauros. From
Ariana to the Eastern Sea, it is bound by mountains that are called the Kaukasos by the Macedonians. The various native names for these mountains include
Parapamisos, Hemodus (or Emodus) and Himaos. The area of India is said to span 28,000
stades from west to east, and 32,000 from north to south. Because of its large size, India is "thought to encompass a larger stretch of the sun's course in summer than any other part of the world". In many of the extreme points of India, a
gnomon of the sundial casts no shadow, and the Bears (
Ursa Major and
Ursa Minor) are not visible at night. In the furthest parts, the
pole star is not visible, and it is said that the shadows incline to the south. India has many large and navigable rivers, which rise in the northern mountains, and flow through the plains. Many of these rivers merge into the
Ganges, which is 30 stadia wide at its source, and runs from north to south. The Ganges empties into the ocean that forms the southern boundary of
Gandaridae (Gangadarai). The country of Gandaridae has the highest number and the largest elephants in India, because of which other nations are afraid of its strength, and no foreign king has been able to conquer it. Even
Alexander of Macedon, who subdued all of Asia and defeated all the other Indians, refrained from making war against Gandaridae when he learned that they had 4,000 war elephants. The
Indus also runs from north to south, and empties into the ocean. It has several navigable tributaries, the most notable ones being Hypanis, the
Hydaspes, and the Acesines. (According to a passage of Diodorus traced to Megasthenes, Indus is the world's largest river after Nile. However, according to Arrian, Megasthenes as well as other writers wrote that Ganges is much larger than Indus.) One peculiar river is the
Sillas, which originates from a fountain of the same name. Everything cast into this river sinks down to the bottom – nothing floats in it. In addition, there are a large number of other rivers, supplying abundant water for agriculture. According to the native philosophers and natural scientists, this is because the bordering countries (Scythia, Bactria, and Ariana) are more elevated than India, so their waters run down to India.
History site of Pataliputra. In the primitive times, the Indians lived on fruits and wore clothes made of animal skin, just like the Greeks. The most learned Indian scholars say that
Dionysus invaded India, and conquered it. When his army was unable to bear the excessive heat, he led his soldiers to the mountains called Meros for recovery; this led to the Greek legend about Dionysus being bred in his father's thigh (
meros in Greek). Dionysus taught Indians several things including how to grow plants, make wine and worship. He founded several large cities, introduced laws and established courts. For this reason, he was regarded as a deity by the Indians. He ruled entire India for 52 years, before dying of old age. His descendants ruled India for several generations, before being dethroned and replaced by democratic city-states. The Indians who inhabit the hill country also claim that
Herakles was one of them. Like the Greeks, they characterize him with the club and the lion's skin. According to them, Herakles was a powerful man who subjugated evil beasts. He had several sons and one daughter, who became rulers in different parts of his dominion. He founded several cities, the greatest of which was Palibothra (
Pataliputra). Herakles built several places in this city, fortified it with water-filled trenches and settled a number of people in the city. His descendants ruled India for several generations, but never launched an expedition beyond India. After several years, the royal rule was replaced by democratic city states, although there existed a few kings when Alexander invaded India.
Fauna India has a variety of animals, many of which are exceptionally large and strong. India has the highest number of domesticated elephants, and Indians hunt and
trained them for warfare. Because of availability of a great amount of food, the Indian elephants are the largest in the world, and stronger than the
Libyan elephants. The gestation period of the elephants ranges from 16 to 18 months, and the oldest of the elephants live up to 200 years.
Economy The land of India produces every kind of metal suitable for adornment, military requipment and other use. It has a great amount of silver and gold, a substantial amount of bronze and iron, and also tin and other metals. India has several mountains with a variety of fruit trees. It also has many beautiful cultivated plains, which are irrigated by a large number of rivers. Most of the country is well-watered, and is able to produce
two crops a year, since rain falls in both summer and winter. The major crops include wheat (crop of Demeter), millet, many great-quality pulses, rice, a crop called
bosporos, fruits and other plants that are useful as food. At the time of summer solstice, the following crops are sown: rice,
bosporos,
sesame, and millet. During winter, wheat is sown, as in other countries. No famines have ever occurred in India because of the following reasons: • The Indians are always assured of at least one of the two seasonal crops; in most years, both crops succeed • A number of remarkably sweet fruits grow in wild, and
roots grow in marshy places • The food plants grow in abundance in plains because of water from many rivers, the remarkably regular annual rain cycle, and the heat that ripens the roots in the marshes • The Indian warriors regard those engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry as sacred. Unlike warriors in many other countries, they do not destroy farms or harm farm workers during wars. The warriors do not burn down the enemy lands with fire or cut down their trees.
Food and clothing Indian beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley. When the Indians are at supper, a table is placed before each person, this being like a tripod. There is placed upon it golden bowls, into which they first put rice, boiled as one would boil barley, and then they add many dainties prepared according to Indian recipes. Indians never drink wine except in sacrifice. In contrast to the general simplicity of their style, they love finery and ornament. Their robes are worked in gold, and ornamented with precious stones, and they wear also flowered garments made of the finest muslin. Some have attendants walking behind hold up umbrellas over them: for they have a high regard for beauty, and avail themselves of every device to improve their looks.
Society Because of its large size, India is inhabited by many diverse races, all of which are indigenous. India has no foreign colony, and Indians have not established any colonies outside India. Like its animals, the humans of India are also "exceptional in stature and bulk" because of abundance of crops. They are also technically accomplished, because of pure air and clean water. They are well-skilled in art. A law, prescribed by ancient Indian philosophers, bans slavery. The law treats everyone equally, but allows the property to be unevenly distributed. The population of India is divided into 7 endogamous and hereditary castes: •
Philosophers • Not numerous compared to other castes, but most prominent • Exempted from all public duties • Neither masters, nor servants • "believed to be most dear to the gods, and to be the most conversant with matters pertaining to
Hades" • Engaged by others to offer sacrifices and perform funerary rites, for which they received valuable gifts and privileges • At the beginning of the year, they make prophecies about droughts, rain storms, propitious winds, diseases and other topics. Based on these prophecies, the citizens and the rulers make adequate preparations. A philosopher whose prophecy fails receives strong criticism and has to observe silence for the rest of his life, but otherwise incurs no penalty. •
Farmers • Most numerous of all castes • Live in villages, and avoid visiting towns • Exempted from fighting and other public duties • Regarded as public benefactors, and protected from damage during wars, even by enemy warriors • Pay a land tribute to the ruler, the official land owner • In addition, they remit 1/4th of their produce to the state treasury •
Herders • Live in tents, outside villages and towns • Hunt and trap crop-destroying birds and animals • involved in animal husbandry •
Artisans • Create weapons as well as tools for farmers and others • Exempted from paying taxes, and receive a maintenance from the state exchequer •
Military • Second most numerous among the castes • Well-organized and equipped for war • Indulge in amusements and idleness during peaceful times • Maintained at state expense, along with war horses and elephants •
Overseers • Carry out administrative tasks • Report to the king or (in states not ruled by kings) magistrates •
Councillors and Assessors • Composed of wise people with good character • Deliberate on public affairs; include the royal advisers, state treasurers, dispute arbitrators; the army generals and chief magistrates also usually belong to this class. • Least numerous, but most respected
Philosophy Megasthenes divides the Indian philosophers into two kinds - one of which he calls the
Brachmanes, and the other the
Sarmanes. Of the Sarmanes he states that the Hylobioi (
Gymnosophist) are the most honored. The next most honoured are the
physicians, since they are engaged in the study of the nature of man. Besides these there are diviners and sorcerers. Women pursue philosophy with some of them. Megasthenes also comments on the presence of
pre-Socratic views among the Brahmans in India and Jews in Syria. Five centuries later Clement of Alexandria, in his
Stromateis, may have misunderstood Megasthenes to be responding to claims of Greek primacy by admitting Greek views of
physics were preceded by those of Jews and Indians. Megasthenes, like
Numenius of Apamea, was simply comparing the ideas of the different ancient cultures.
Treatment of foreigners The foreigners are treated well. Special officers are appointed to ensure that no foreigner is harmed, and judges hand out harsh punishment to those who take unfair advantage of the foreigners. Sick foreigners are attended by physicians and taken care of. Foreigners who die in India are buried, and their property is delivered to their relatives. == Historical reliability ==