India–China Border Roads

Strategic infrastructure requirements In the wake of heightened road and track construction work undertaken by China along India's northern and eastern frontiers, India constituted a China Study Group (CSG) in 1997, to study the requirement of road communication, along the China border for brisk movement of troops in the event of armed conflict. At the end of the study, the CSG identified a network of 73 roads, called the India–China Border Roads (ICBR), to be developed along the Indo-China border. The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) in 1999 approved the construction of these roads by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO) under the Ministry of Defence. The project was to be completed by 2006 but the deadline was then extended to 2012. The Standing Committee on Defence, a body for legislative oversight, appraised strategic road connectivity in 2018. With regard to the slow pace of construction of border roads, the Border Roads Organisation stated to the committee: Reasons such as climate, geography, land acquisition and natural disasters also accounted for the delays. In 2013 the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government took multiple administrative decisions to speed up construction. The 2017 Doklam Standoff further raised the profile of the issue with the Modi government for border infrastructure along the China border. ICBR project phases ICBR-I (Phase-1) and ICBR-II (Phase-2) Phase-1 or ICBR-1 project was conceived in 1999 with a target completion date of 2012 to construct 73 strategic ICBRs of nearly 4000 km length. Of the 61 roads assigned to BRO, 12 roads of 1,064.14 km length in Ladakh, 5 roads of 116.99 km length in Himachal Pradesh, 14 roads of 355 km length in Uttarakhand, 3 roads of 61.98 km length in Sikkim, and 27 roads of 1,725.46 km length are in Arunachal Pradesh. ICBR-III or Phase-3 ICBR-III was approved in 2020–21 fiscal budget, expanded version of which was approved in 2020 with inclusion of additional roads. Annual funding was as follows: INR 118 billion in 2020–21, INR 80.50 billion in 2019–20, INR 67 billion in 2018–19, INR 54.50 billion in 2017–18, between INR 33 billion to INR 46 billion annually from 2008 to 2016. The work structure for the ICBRs is divided among different agencies including the National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC), Central Public Works Department (CPWD), National Projects Construction Corporation (NPCC) and state public works departments. == List of ICB Roads ==

Phase 1 Phase-I consists of 3812 km roads. Major road projects in Arunachal Pradesh include the 'Sela Pass project' which consists of the under construction Sela Tunnel. Uttarakhand In Uttarakhand, the border most points of Pulam Sumda, Mana Pass, Niti Pass, Lapthal and Rimkhim, and Lipulekh have been connected. Ladakh The forward most localities and border outposts of Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO), Hotspring, Demchok and Zursar have been connected. Roads connectivity has reduced their reliance on air transport. Sikkim == Related geo-strategic projects ==

Geostrategic initiatives include the Andaman and Nicobar Command and the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue. Vibrant villages Border Area Development Plan Under the 2022–23 budget, India intends to repopulate, upgrade or establish 500 villages near the zero-line border along the LAC from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh, while China has already established 628 villages by 2021 at a cost of $6.4 billion with heavily subsidized telecommunication, internet, electricity and utilities, etc. According to this report, out of 172 (incl. 24 3G & 78 4G) out 236 villages in Ladakh had telecom connectivity. For example, 19 border villages in Chushul had no or partial communication infrastructure. The Indian Armed Forces has divided the LAC into 3 sectors – the western sector across Ladakh and the Chinese-controlled Aksai Chin, the central sector across Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand, and the eastern sector across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, the Indian Airforce has the Prayagraj-based Central Air Command, Delhi-based Western Air Command, and Shillong-based Eastern Air Command to cover the LAC. • Ladakh airports and advanced landing grounds (ALGs) at Daulat Beg Oldi, Fukche, Leh, Nyoma, Padum, Thoise and the proposed Parma Valley ALG. • Himachal Pradesh shares 250 km border with China. Airports include Shimla Airport, and the proposed Alinye (ALG), • New bridges on Brahmaputra River in Assam will serve Arunachal Pradesh in Eastern Sector. Border railway projects India's Ministry of Defence (MoD) has identified at least 15 new geostrategic rail lines to be constructed near the China, Pakistan and Nepal borders for troop deployments. In comparison, China has built lines up to Shigatse in Tibet, with plans to connect it to Nepal and further to India. After these lines were proposed by the ministry of defense in 2013, the Government of India approved the initial surveys of all 14 lines in 2014, Some of these as well as other related projects are as follows: Other border road projects • Ladakh-Himachal-Uttrakhand • Char Dham Highway, not part of ICBR • Pooh–Chumar Road & Harsil-Kharcham Road. Both were announced in September 2020 in addition to the ICBR phase 1, and each will cost between INR20 billion to INR30 billion. • Sikkim • Bagrakote-Gangtok Highway: 250 km-long road originating from NH17 (NH31 as per old numbering) near Bagrakote in the Dooars to Gangtok is being upgraded to national highway standard in July 2020 by the National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited (NHIDCL). It passes through Algarah-Lava-Rishyap (in West Bengal on Sikkim border)-Rhenock-Rorathang-Pakyong-Ranipool to Gangtok. In addition to the existing landslide-prone NH10 Sevoke-Gangtok Highway, this will provide alternate access to the state capital Gangtok and beyond to the India-China border. As of January 2023, of the tunnel projects assigned to BRO, 5 were complete, 9 were under construction ( 6 – Arunachal Pradesh, 4 – Jammu and Kashmir, 1 – Ladakh), 11 were in DPR phase, the rest have been assigned to other entities. BRO has been constructing tunnels the strategic ICBR roads on Sino-Indian border to provide the year-round all-weather connectivity. Without these tunnels, the road access to high altitude posts on Sino-India border is closed for six months every year due to snowfall and rain, and supplies are through airlift only. These tunnels will reduce the travel time and operational costs, and eliminate the risk of avalanche and landslide. List of tunnels, from west to east along the Indo-Chinese border, is as follows: Tunnel construction in Himalayan areas have picked up the pace. For example, Uttrakhand has 18 existing tunnels in January 2023 and 66 more tunnels will be built in next 10 years, some of which are already under construction and others are either in DPR or planning phase. In May 2023, India had 1641 ongoing tunneling projects, of which national highways had 144 tunnels of 357 km costing ₹2000 billion including 30 tunnels (45 km) completed, 16 (120 km) under construction to be completed by fy2024-25, 54 (192 km) under the Detailed Project Report (DPR) stage. Sea ports and waterways projects Sagarmala port development project and the National Waterways projects will also enhance geostrategic capabilities along LAC and elsewhere. Waterway projects in Assam on Brahmaputra River and its tributaries are of geostrategic importance for the movement of military assets, these include National Waterway 2 and Subansiri River. Under-river tunnel Gohpur–Numaligarh under-river tunnel, is an under construction tunnel under the Brahmaputra river. Mobile and internet connectivity In June 2020, it was announced that 54 villages in the Ladakh region; including the Demchok is among the 19 in Kargil, 11 in Zanskar and 7 in Nubra Valley; will receive mobile phone connectivity from Jio via the satellite connected towers under the Universal Service Obligation Funding (USOF) programme. Radars • Uttarakhand • Doppler radar at Mukteshwar and Surkanda Devi • Air defence radars, under construction, at Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Uttarkashi Northeast connectivity projects • North Eastern Railway Connectivity Project • Northeast Connectivity projects • Look-East Connectivity projects • North-South and East-West Corridor • India-Myanmar-Thailand Friendship Highway • BCIM Economic Corridor • Asian Highway Network • List of bridges on Brahmaputra River == See also ==