Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture

Origins and early development , late Umayyad period (early 8th century), although it was of limited scope until the late Umayyad period. As with other early Islamic sculptural decoration, the carved stucco decoration in the Umayyad period started out with an eclectic mix of styles originating in existing Classical, early Byzantine, and ancient Near Eastern artistic traditions. Under the Abbasids, based in Iraq, stucco decoration developed more abstract motifs, as seen in the 9th-century palaces of Samarra. Three styles are distinguished by modern scholars: "style A" consists of vegetal motifs, including vine leaves, derived from more traditional Byzantine and Levantine styles; "style B" is a more abstract and stylized version of these motifs; and "style C", also known as the "beveled" style, is entirely abstract, consisting of repeating symmetrical forms of curved lines ending in spirals. Eastern Islamic lands '' in the Great Mosque of Isfahan in Iran, with deeply-carved arabesques and inscriptions (early 14th century, Ilkhanid) In the Greater Iranian region, a fairly distinctive style evolved from Abbasid models, employing stucco carved in high relief, especially in the decoration of mihrabs during the periods of Seljuk and Mongol domination. and the mihrab of the Pir i-Bakran Mausoleum (early 14th century). The existing stucco examples from this period are nonetheless of high quality, as seen in the mihrab of the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, dated to 1304. The lavish stucco decoration of the madrasa's minaret, on the other hand, appears to involve contemporary Maghrebi styles and craftsmanship alongside local motifs. Stucco decoration underwent a brief revival during the reign of Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), when it was used again in interior decoration. was also influenced by other Islamic architectural traditions further east. Archeological evidence near Kairouan in Tunisia and Sedrata in Algeria indicate that the Abbasid style of carved stucco was also introduced to the region of Ifriqiya. Stucco became the most common medium of decoration in the 11th century. Mudéjar decoration in Christian Spain stucco decoration in the Royal Convent of Santa Clara in Tordesillas, Spain (14th century) As Christian kingdoms progressively conquered the Iberian Peninsula, they continued to use the Islamic style, or "Mudéjar" style, in many of their new buildings. Moorish or Islamic-style plasterwork is found, for example, in 14th-century Castilian architecture such as the palace of Pedro I in the Alcázar of Seville, the Royal Convent of Santa Clara in Tordesillas (former palace of Alfonso XI), and the Jewish Synagogue of El Tránsito in Toledo. In these examples, Christian inscriptions and Castilian heraldry are also included against backgrounds of traditional Islamic arabesque and geometric motifs. == Motifs and styles ==

Islamic and Mujédar stucco decoration followed the main types of ornamentation in Islamic art: geometric, arabesque or vegetal, and calligraphic motifs. Stucco was sometimes used for murals and painted decoration in some regions and periods, Figural motifs (such as animals or human forms) are also attested in stucco carving, though they were not in general usage across the Islamic world. More exceptionally, some mosques in Morocco and Algeria contained decorative domes made of stucco with intricately carved arabesques that were pierced to allow light to pass through, as in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (built and decorated under the Almoravids in the early 12th century). File:Alhambra wall 10 (6859744634).jpg|Star-like polygonal geometric motif (with arabesque details) in stucco wall decoration at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid) File:Ardestan-mosque-3.jpg|Arabesque (vegetal) motifs in carved stucco on the mihrab of the Friday Mosque of Ardistan, Iran (12th century, Seljuk) File:Fes DSC03586 Morocco (15256607226).jpg|Calligraphic frieze in carved stucco at the Al-'Attarin Madrasa in Fez (14th century, Marinid) File:Doorway - Patio de los Leones - Alhambra.JPG|Stucco "Stalactite"-style muqarnas in the Palace of the Lions at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid) File:Alhambra (51949919755).jpg|Full muqarnas dome in stucco in the Palace of the Lions at the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid) File:Damascus National Museum Qasr al-Heir al-Gharbi (gateway) 7749.jpg|Stucco-decorated gate of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (early 8th century, Umayyad), reconstructed at the National Museum of Damascus File:Soffit of arch with geometric stucco design, Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo, 876-79 (4).jpg|Abbasid-style decoration in the arches of the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo, Egypt (9th century) File:Stucco window from the mosque of al-Salih Tala'i in Cairo, Fatimid, 1160; Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (2).jpg|Stucco grille window from the al-Salih Tala'i Mosque in Cairo (12th century, Fatimid), with arabesque and Kufic Arabic motifs File:Bou inania DSCF4638.jpg|Stucco wall decoration and stucco grille windows in the Bou Inania Madrasa in Fez (14th century, Marinid) File:Alhambra 16 (29345436978).jpg|Sebka, arabesque, and epigraphic motifs on the walls of the Hall of Ambassadors in the Alhambra (14th century, Nasrid) File:Akbar's Tomb 29.jpg|Painted and carved plaster decoration inside Akbar's Tomb in Agra, India (early 17th century, Mughal) == Material ==

In the context of Islamic architecture, the terms "stucco" and "plaster" are used almost interchangeably to denote most types of stucco or plaster decoration with varying compositions. In its most flexible usage, it can even denote a material made from a mixture of mud and clay. The combination of abundant source material, ease of preparation and handling, wide adaptability for use, and quick setting time accounted for stucco's widespread use. In the 19th century, plaster of Paris was used in restoration and redecoration at later dates over the original stucco layer. == Technique ==

Throughout the Islamic world, stucco was smoothed and the decorative designs were marked out with a pointed instrument. The carving was then done with iron tools while the material was still slightly wet. Evidence of this technique has been found in unfinished stucco decoration at Khirbat al-Mafjar (8th century) near Jericho and in the interior of the Kutubiyya Mosque's minaret in Marrakesh (12th century). Sometimes, the architects would go in after the stucco has had time to dry and carve additional details. After this, the stucco on the walls would usually be painted over or whitewashed for a cleaner finish. Nasrid stucco In Nasrid art, the two basic techniques for creating stucco decoration were carving in situ and casting molds which were then attached to the structure. In situ carving was the most common method initially, but towards the early 14th century, during the reign of Muhammad III, molding became more standard. After molded pieces were attached to the walls, they were painted or whitewashed as needed. Current advances in analytical instrumentation that allows for in situ analysis of the stucco are yielding information about original pigments and techniques. A further example of Nasrid artisans skill with stucco was their use of high purity gypsum coating that served both as a sealant and a preparatory stage for subsequent painting or gilding on the original stucco layer. The Alhambra has been the focus of recent investigations. The primary colors used on the stucco of the Alhambra were red, blue, green, golden, and black. Spectroscopic analysis of pigments attributed to original decoration of the Alhambra show cinnabar as the pigment used for red color. Lapis lazuli, a highly prized and expensive pigment, accounts for the blue. Malachite has been detected as the source of the green hues. Carbon black was used for black pigment. Gilding, especially on the muqarnas, has been noted. The application of both pigment and gilding to these geometrically complex ceilings showed their knowledge and skill in optical allusion and spatial harmony. Investigations have focused on the muqarnas ornamented ceiling in the Hall of Kings in the Alhambra. Data is revealing the expansive use of two of the most expensive materials on this ceiling, lapis lazuli and gold leaf revealing the original dazzling opulence of the space. == See also ==