Bronze Age Early Bronze Age Sumer and Akkad s on the
Standard of Ur, c. 2500 BC Sumer hosted many early advances in
human history, such as
schools (), making the area a
cradle of civilization. The oldest excavated archaeological site in Sumer,
Tell el-'Oueili, dates to the 7th millennium BC, although it is likely that the area was occupied even earlier. The oldest layers at 'Oueili mark the beginning of the
Ubaid period, which was followed by the
Uruk period (4th millennium BC) and the
Early Dynastic periods (3rd millennium BC). The
Akkadian Empire, founded by
Sargon the Great, lasted from the 24th to the 21st century BC, and was regarded by many as the world's first empire. The Akkadians eventually fragmented into Assyria and Babylonia.
Elam Ancient
Elam lay to the east of Sumer and
Akkad, in the far west and southwest of modern-day
Iran, stretching from the lowlands of
Khuzestan and
Ilam Province. In the Old Elamite period, , it consisted of kingdoms on the
Iranian plateau, centered on
Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered on
Susa in the
Khuzestan lowlands. Elam was absorbed into the
Assyrian Empire in the 9th to 7th centuries BC; however, the civilization endured up until 539 BC when it was finally overrun by the
Iranian Persians. The
Proto-Elamite civilization existed from to
2700 BC, when Susa, the later capital of the Elamites, began to receive influence from the cultures of the Iranian plateau. In archaeological terms, this corresponds to the late
Banesh period. This civilization is recognized as the oldest in Iran and was largely contemporary with its neighbour, Sumer. The Proto-Elamite script is an early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use for the
ancient Elamite language (which was a
language isolate) before the introduction of
Elamite cuneiform.
The Amorites The
Amorites were a nomadic
Semitic people who occupied the country west of the
Euphrates from the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BC, the land of the Amorites ("the
Mar.tu land") is associated with the West, including
Syria and
Canaan, although their ultimate origin may have been
Arabia. They ultimately settled in Mesopotamia, ruling
Isin,
Larsa, and later Babylon.
Middle Bronze Age • Assyria, after enduring a short period of
Mitanni domination, emerged as a great power from the accession of
Ashur-uballit I in 1365 BC to the death of
Tiglath-Pileser I in 1076 BC. Assyria rivaled Egypt during this period, and dominated much of the near east. • Babylonia, founded as a state by Amorite tribes, found itself under the rule of
Kassites for 435 years. The nation stagnated during the Kassite period, and Babylonia often found itself under Assyrian or Elamite domination. •
Canaan:
Ugarit,
Kadesh,
Megiddo • The
Hittite Empire was founded some time after 2000 BC, and existed as a major power, dominating
Asia Minor and the
Levant until 1200 BC, when it was first overrun by the
Phrygians, and then appropriated by Assyria.
Late Bronze Age city of
Hattusa The
Hurrians lived in northern Mesopotamia and areas to the immediate east and west, beginning approximately 2500 BC. They probably originated in the
Caucasus and entered from the north, but this is not certain. Their known homeland was centred on
Subartu, the
Khabur River valley, and later they established themselves as rulers of small kingdoms throughout northern Mesopotamia and Syria. The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was the kingdom of
Mitanni. The Hurrians played a substantial part in the
history of the Hittites.
Ishuwa was an ancient kingdom in
Anatolia. The name is first attested in the second millennium BC, and is also spelled Išuwa. In the classical period, the land was a part of
Armenia. Ishuwa was one of the places where agriculture developed very early on in the
Neolithic. Urban centres emerged in the upper Euphrates river valley around 3500 BC. The first states followed in the third millennium BC. The name Ishuwa is not known until the literate period of the second millennium BC. Few literate sources from within Ishuwa have been discovered and the primary source material comes from Hittite texts. To the west of Ishuwa lay the kingdom of the
Hittites, and this nation was an untrustworthy neighbour. The Hittite king
Hattusili I () is reported to have marched his army across the Euphrates river and destroyed the cities there. This corresponds well with burnt destruction layers discovered by archaeologists at town sites in Ishuwa of roughly the same date. After the end of the Hittite empire in the early 12th century BC a new state emerged in Ishuwa. The city of
Malatya became the centre of one of the so-called
Neo-Hittite kingdom. The movement of nomadic people may have weakened the kingdom of Malatya before the final Assyrian invasion. The decline of the settlements and culture in Ishuwa from the 7th century BC until the Roman period was probably caused by this movement of people. The Armenians later settled in the area since they were natives of the
Armenian plateau and related to the earlier inhabitants of Ishuwa.
Kizzuwatna was a kingdom of the second millennium BC, situated in the highlands of southeastern Anatolia, near the
Gulf of İskenderun in modern-day
Turkey, encircling the
Taurus Mountains and the
Ceyhan river. The centre of the kingdom was the city of
Kummanni, situated in the highlands. In a later era, the same region was known as
Cilicia.
Luwian is an extinct language of the
Anatolian branch of the
Indo-European language family.
Luwian speakers gradually spread through Anatolia and became a contributing factor to the downfall, after , of the Hittite Empire, where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as
Melid and
Carchemish, as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of
Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been preserved in two forms, named after the writing systems used to represent them:
Cuneiform Luwian and
Hieroglyphic Luwian.
Mari was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city, located 11 kilometres north-west of the modern town of
Abu Kamal on the western bank of Euphrates river, some 120 km southeast of
Deir ez-Zor, Syria. It is thought to have been inhabited since the 5th millennium BC, although it flourished from 2900 BC until 1759 BC, when it was sacked by
Hammurabi.
Mitanni was a
Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from , at the height of its power, during the 14th century BC, encompassing what is today southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq (roughly corresponding to
Kurdistan), centred on the capital
Washukanni whose precise location has not yet been determined by archaeologists. The Mitanni language showed
Indo-Aryan influences, especially in the names of gods. The spread to Syria of a distinct pottery type associated with the
Kura-Araxes culture has been connected with this movement, although its date is somewhat too early.
Yamhad was an ancient Amorite kingdom. A substantial Hurrian population also settled in the kingdom, and the Hurrian culture influenced the area. The kingdom was powerful during the Middle Bronze Age, –1600 BC. Its biggest rival was
Qatna further south. Yamhad was finally destroyed by the Hittites in the 16th century BC. The
Aramaeans were a Semitic (
West Semitic language group), semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who had lived in upper Mesopotamia and
Syria. Aramaeans have never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. Yet to these Aramaeans befell the privilege of imposing their language and culture upon the entire Near East and beyond, fostered in part by the mass relocations enacted by successive empires, including the Assyrians and
Babylonians. Scholars even have used the term 'Aramaization' for the Assyro-Babylonian peoples' languages and cultures, that have become Aramaic-speaking. The
Sea peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control
Egyptian territory during the late
19th dynasty, and especially during Year 8 of
Ramesses III of the
20th Dynasty. The Egyptian pharaoh
Merneptah explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples') of the sea" in his
Great Karnak Inscription. Although some scholars believe that they "invaded"
Cyprus,
Hatti and the Levant, this hypothesis is disputed.
Bronze Age collapse (c. 1200 BC) in the Eastern Mediterranean The
Bronze Age collapse is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the late Bronze Age to the
Early Iron Age as violent, sudden and culturally disruptive, expressed by the collapse of
palace economies of the
Aegean and Anatolia, which were replaced after a hiatus by the isolated village cultures of the
Dark Age period in history of the ancient Middle East. Some have gone so far as to call the catalyst that ended the Bronze Age a "catastrophe". The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now
Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries. The cultural collapse of the
Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the
Egyptian Empire in Syria and
Palestine, the scission of long-distance
trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC. In the first phase of this period, almost every city between
Troy and
Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied thereafter (for example,
Hattusas,
Mycenae,
Ugarit). The gradual end of the
Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite and
Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the
Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Iron Age During the Early Iron Age, from 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire arose, vying with Babylonia and other lesser powers for dominance of the region, though not until the reforms of
Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC, did it become a powerful and vast empire. In the Middle Assyrian period of the Late Bronze Age,
ancient Assyria had been a kingdom of
northern Mesopotamia (modern-day northern Iraq), competing for dominance with its southern Mesopotamian rival Babylonia. From 1365 to 1076, it had been a major imperial power, rivaling Egypt and the Hittite Empire. Beginning with the campaign of
Adad-nirari II, it became a vast empire, overthrowing the
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and conquering Egypt, the Middle East, and large swaths of
Asia Minor,
ancient Iran, the Caucasus and
east Mediterranean. The Neo-Assyrian Empire succeeded the
Middle Assyrian period (14th to 10th century BC). Some scholars, such as
Richard Nelson Frye, regard the Neo-Assyrian Empire to be the first real empire in human history. During this period,
Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the
Akkadian language.
Urartu was an ancient kingdom of Armenia and North Mesopotamia which existed from , emerging from the Late Bronze Age until 585 BC. The Kingdom of Urartu was located in the mountainous plateau between
Asia Minor, the
Iranian plateau, Mesopotamia, and the
Caucasus Mountains, later known as the
Armenian Highland, and it centered on
Lake Van (present-day eastern Turkey). The name corresponds to the
Biblical Ararat. relief of attack on an enemy town during the reign of
Tiglath-Pileser III, 743–720 BC, from his palace at
Nimrud Two related
Israelite kingdoms known as
Israel and Judah emerged in the
Southern Levant during the Iron Age. The northern
Kingdom of Israel, with its most prominent capital at
Samaria, was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power; during the days of the
Omride dynasty, it controlled
Samaria,
Galilee, the upper
Jordan Valley, the
Sharon and large parts of the
Transjordan. It was destroyed around 720 BC, when it was conquered by the
Neo-Assyrian Empire. The southern
Kingdom of Judah, with its capital at
Jerusalem, survived longer. In the 7th century BC, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage. After the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BC, the ensuing competition between the
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and the
Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the
Levant resulted with the rapid decline of the kingdom. In the early-6th century BC, Judah was weakened by
a series of Babylonian invasions, and in 587–586 BC,
Jerusalem was besieged and destroyed by the second Babylonian king,
Nebuchadnezzar II, who subsequently
exiled the Judeans to Babylon. The term Neo-Babylonian Empire refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean") dynasty, from the revolt of
Nabopolassar in 623 BC until the invasion of
Cyrus the Great in 539 BC (Although the last ruler of Babylonia (
Nabonidus) was in fact from the Assyrian city of Harran and not Chaldean), notably including the reign of Nebuchadrezzar II. Through the centuries of Assyrian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through the granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in 627 BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler,
Ashurbanipal, and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar the Chaldean a few years later. In alliance with the
Medes and
Scythians,
Nineveh was sacked in 612 and
Harran in 608 BC, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia. Subsequently, the Medes controlled much of the ancient Near East from their base in
Ecbatana (modern-day
Hamadan, Iran), most notably most of what is now Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the
South Caucasus. at its greatest extent Following the fall of the Medes, the
Achaemenid Empire was the first of the
Persian Empires to rule over most of the Near East and far beyond, and the second great Iranian empire (after the Median Empire). At the height of its power, encompassing approximately , the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire of classical antiquity, and the first world empire. It spanned three continents (
Europe, Asia, and Africa), including apart from its core in modern-day Iran, the territories of modern Iraq, the Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan,
Dagestan, Abkhazia), Asia Minor (Turkey),
Thrace (parts of eastern
Bulgaria),
Macedonia (roughly corresponding to present-day
Macedonia in northern Greece), many of the
Black Sea coastal regions, northern
Saudi Arabia,
Jordan,
Israel,
Lebanon, Syria,
Afghanistan,
Central Asia, parts of
Pakistan, and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as
Libya. It is noted in western history as the foe of the
Greek city states in the
Greco-Persian Wars, for freeing the Israelites from their
Babylonian captivity, and for instituting Aramaic as the empire's official language. In 116–117 AD, most of the ancient Near East (excepting several more marginal regions) was briefly re-united under the rule of the
Roman Empire under
Trajan. ==See also==