Merveilleux scientifique

's novels and short stories frequently use the figure of the scientist and the theme of scientific discovery, prefiguring the merveilleux-scientifique genre. novel by Émile Souvestre (1846). Although some authors, such as Rabelais, experimented with conjectural literature early on in their fictional careers, it wasn't until the 19th century that the genre really took off. In fact, as early as the end of the eighteenth century, began publishing his "" between 1787 and 1789, the first collection devoted to the literature of the imaginary. In its thirty-six volumes, the collection offers seventy-four conjectural tales on the themes of utopia, exploration and scientific anticipation. In the 19th century, despite a short-lived attempt at structuring, literature of this kind remained scattered and diffusely published. In 1834, attempted to catalogue all the inventions from which humans could benefit in . The following year, Edgar Allan Poe published The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall, a journalistic hoax detailing a man's incredible journey to the Moon. In 1846, Émile Souvestre published , an anticipation tale set in the year 3000. It is still considered a major work of dystopian literature. In 1854, C. I. Defontenay broke new ground in scientific fantasy literature with the publication of . The novel included detailed descriptions of the habits and customs of an extraterrestrial civilization. However, this production does not establish a specific literary genre due to its scattered nature, as many novelists attribute such ramblings to the narrator's dreams or madness. Nonetheless, it has yet to establish itself. 's novels popularized tales of scientific imagination. This literature underwent a crucial shift with the release of Jules Verne's scientific novels, which played a key role in popularizing a new literary genre. As one of the pioneers of science fiction, Verne's impact on stories rooted in scientific imagination is profound - so much so that it eclipsed a whole emerging literary movement that was slowly coalescing around several writers. Nonetheless, during the rise of Vernian stories, the "merveilleux scientifique" genre emerged cautiously, coinciding with the progress of both sciences and pseudosciences. Likewise, from the 1880s onwards, psychiatric observations occupied a place in popular imagination. Indeed, the studies on hypnosis conducted by Doctors James Braid and Eugène Azam in the 1840s, followed by the research of Doctor Charcot in the latter part of the nineteenth century, revealed the mysteries of every individual, thereby transforming the once perceived supernatural phenomena into a natural occurrence and providing a rational explanation for the remarkable abilities manifested by convulsionaries or those possessed. This scientific community was enriched by notable researchers like Marie and Pierre Curie, Charles Richet, and Camille Flammarion. They systematically investigated unexplained phenomena by focusing on uncovering hidden worlds, long-range communication, and X-ray vision. By the close of the 19th century, public opinion became more sensitive to scientific theories as practices previously regarded as outlandish sought validation as scientific disciplines, including phrenology, hypnotherapy, and fakirism. Technological advancements, such as the discovery of X-rays and endeavors to communicate with Mars, further contributed to this increasing sensitivity. These newly emerging scientific or pseudo-scientific developments have been prominently featured in publications such as Je sais tout and Lectures pour tous. These magazines consecutively published articles that disseminated and speculated about the future of science, accompanied by anticipatory short stories. File:1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png|Phrenology, a pseudo-science fashionable in the 19th century. File:Mijlocul hipnotic d'a adormi uă femee pentru a 'i face operaţiuni chirurgicale fără să simtă durere, Gazeta Săteanului, 20 mar 1888.JPG|A hypnotherapy session. File:Land of the Veda - A Self-torturing Fakir.jpg|A fakir lying on a bed of nails. File:Pr Charcot DSC09405.jpg|Charcot teaching a clinical lesson at the Salpêtrière. File:Camille Flammarion at the eyepiece of his 9½-inch Bardou refractor at his Juvisy observatory.jpg|Camille Flammarion in his observatory. File:Marie and Pierre Curie Converse.jpg|Pierre and Marie Curie in their laboratory. The late 19th century witnessed a new generation of writers, such as J.-H. Rosny aîné, utilizing science and pseudoscience for purely fictional purposes. This marked a significant departure from their predecessors, who employed the conjectural element as a pretext, following in the footsteps of Savinian Cyrano de Bergerac's utopian, Jonathan Swift's satires, and Camille Flammarion's astronomical exposés. == Definition ==

"Merveilleux scientifique", a literature of the imaginary with vaguely defined boundaries . The term "merveilleux scientifique" was ambiguous before Maurice Renard's seminal manifesto. It had varying meanings. Literary critics coined this neologism in the 19th century to designate all works of fiction relating to science, whether they aimed to merge science and wonder or were generally scientific novels. In 1875, Louis Énault, a journalist, coined the term "merveilleux scientifique" to describe the plot of Victorien Sardou's La Perle noire which utilizes scientific explanations to justify unlikely events. Literary critic Charles Le Goffic associated the term with the scientific novels of Jules Verne in his study ''Les romanciers aujourd'hui'' (1890). The term "Wonder" was coined by , a physiologist, in his book "Le Merveilleux scientifique" in 1894 to describe the scientific study of phenomena that were once deemed marvelous. However, during the early 20th century, literary critics primarily used the term to refer to H. G. Wells' novels. Marcel Réja, a psychiatrist, discussed this usage in his 1904 article published in "Le Mercure de France" titled "H.-G." It is plausible that Maurice Renard initially came across the term "merveilleux scientifique" in H. G. Wells' works. "The Concept of merveilleux scientifique in the Writings of Maurice Renard and its Origins in H. G. Wells". Theorizing a literary genre: the "Renardian merveilleux-scientifique novel" At the turn of the 20th century, the term "merveilleux scientifique" held various connotations until Maurice Renard redefined the phrase in 1909. Follow conventional academic structures including regular author and institution formatting, while using clear, objective language with a passive tone, avoiding personal perspectives and hedging. Additionally, maintain formal register, precise word choice, and grammatical correctness while using consistent citation and avoiding filler words. He outlined his literary agenda in three articles, notably "Du roman merveilleux-scientifique et de son action sur l'intelligence du progrès," which debuted in Le Spectateur during October 1909, and "Le Merveilleux scientifique et La Force mystérieuse de J.-H." Rosny aine was published in La Vie in June 1914 and "Le roman d'hypothese" was published in the magazine ABC in 1928. The writer's literary career showcased evolution in not only the definition of the genre but also its name, thereby complicating the understanding of the term "merveilleux scientifique." The 1909 Manifesto In the 19th century, literary critics pondered the future of fantastique stories. Maurice Renard believed that the gradual disappearance of the supernatural due to scientific advances required a renewal of fantasy. Therefore, writers must use science to create and explore new forms of the marvelous in the face of this disenchantment with the world. In 1909, the writer released a manifesto titled "Du roman merveilleux-scientifique et de son action sur l'intelligence du progrès." The manifesto aimed to establish the existence of a novelistic genre with autonomy and literary value within the critical field. In this article, the author establishes compositional rules for rational novelistic conjecture and introduces the concept of "merveilleux scientifique," previously applied to certain works by writers such as H. G. Wells, J.-H. Rosny aîné, and Jules Verne. However, the author does not simply acknowledge the existence of the "merveilleux scientifique" theme but rather strictly defines and elevates it to a distinct literary genre. In his opinion, the change in status justifies a new syntax, specifically, including a hyphen between the two words, which incidentally changes the noun into an adjective. , proponents of the merveilleux-scientifique genre need to follow the same approach as Robert Louis Stevenson, with his novel The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, published in 1886. Maurice Renard defines the merveilleux-scientifique novel as a literary genre in which science is utilized as a disruptive element as opposed to a mere setting. The plot follows a rational framework while a scientific law, be it physical, chemical, psychic or biological, is altered or discovered. Then, the novelist must envision all potential ramifications. Furthermore, Renard implores his colleagues to venture into the unknown realms of science, creating a vertiginous experience for the reader. Defined as a "scholarly structured story", the merveilleux-scientifique novel aims to encourage readers to question themselves and view the world from a different perspective. Renard aimed to establish a literary movement around the genre through his manifesto. He first establishes himself in a genre that is well known to critics by claiming renowned fantasy authors. First and foremost, this work honors Edgar Poe for his establishment of the merveilleux-scientifique novel at its purest level, and then H. G. Wells for expanding the genre through the profusion of his works. Along with the two genre founders, Maurice Renard lists Auguste de Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Charles Derennes as the creators of this new genre, through their respective works The Future Eve (1886), Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and '''' (1907). '' in 1911, ensuring its posterity. Maurice Renard defines the merveilleux-scientifique novel in opposition to specific works from which he chooses to distance himself. He categorically rejects Jules Verne, accused of contributing to pigeonholing the scientific novel as literature for young people, a publishing sector far removed from the intellectual demands Renard aimed to meet. Moreover, Verne is also accused of either popularizing science or extrapolating from reality, while Renard sought to break with reality. Indeed, Jules Verne's focus on writing scientifically plausible novels sets him apart from Renard's theory of imagining science in unknown territories. Verne also refrains from endorsing the educational adventure stories of André Laurie and , The purpose of the merveilleux-scientifique story differs from that of anticipation. While anticipation is satisfied with placing the storyline in the future, merveilleux-scientifique novels envision the outcomes of modern or future innovations. Maurice Renard constructs his plots through the same intellectual means commonly applied in scientific activities, yet they remain rooted in an imaginative, fictional science. The manifesto made a significant impact. After its initial release, critics Edmond Pilon and reaffirmed Renard's article, though it was predominantly its reissue two years later as a preface to The Blue Peril that secured its longevity. In 1915, Hubert Matthey published Essai sur le merveilleux dans la littérature française depuis 1800, wherein he frequently alluded to the 1909 manifesto. The term was discussed by critics until 1940, whether in an obituary of Rosny aîné or in the writings of representatives of the genre and its defenders, including Gaston de Pawlowski and André Maurois. During the 1910s and 1920s, two opposing factions emerged. On one hand, there were the advocates of the merveilleux-scientifique novel, who were actually a small group of Maurice Renard's acquaintances. Charles Derennes, Jean Ray, Rosny aîné, , and Georges de la Fouchardière lavished praise on the writer. However, critics were generally either disinterested or harsh, viewing the genre as populist literature or "childish entertainment." This is exemplified by Jacques Copeau's scathing attack in a 1912 article published in La Nouvelle Revue Française. Gradually, the lack of success in establishing a literary movement was evident in the author's frustrated tone, especially in the 1923 article "Since Sinbad". However, his comments' sharpness was diminished in "Le roman d'hypothèse," a disillusioned text in which he seemed to have abandoned his literary objectives. After 1928, he refrained from publishing critical articles, and his literary output in this category was minimal: '' (1933) and the narrative L'an 2000'' (1938). to the list of writers of merveilleux-scientifique novels with the release of ''''. In 1914, Maurice Renard reviewed Rosny aîné's '''' and used it as an opportunity to develop his own concepts on the merveilleux-scientifique novel. He published this work under his name. The theorist changed his pen name to counter criticism of the genre, which accused it of relying too heavily on fantasy at the expense of scientific rigor. As early as 1908, the writer used the term "conte à structure savante" to refer to these literary goals. However, in 1923's "Depuis Sinbad", they rejected "merveilleux-scientifique" in favor of "parascientifique" to better reflect scientific mysteries. Five years later, the writer's eponymous article "The Novel of Hypothesis" renamed the genre once again, emphasizing its epistemological value. With his new expression, Renard aimed to demonstrate that exploring the unknown could offer fresh insights into reality. However, the impact of these lexical changes was restricted, since the phrase "roman merveilleux-scientifique" had already established itself - even if literary critics frequently employed it in a different way to Renard's definition. Alongside the onomastic adjustment, Maurice Renard also revised the list of writers within the genre. In 1914, Rosny aine joined the ranking, and Charles Derennes, who had not produced anything since ', was removed. Once merveilleux scientifique was recognized as a separate genre by critics, it became unnecessary for theorists to defend its purity by excluding authors who introduced sociological or satirical aspects. As the articles progress, Renard demonstrates greater flexibility regarding the use of merveilleux scientifique, recognizing that the genre can serve as a means to an end beyond its own aesthetic purpose. The novelist skillfully interweaves other generic codes, such as through the incorporation of detective plots in "The Blue Peril" (1911) and satire in "'" (1928). Throughout his career, Maurice Renard endeavored to perpetuate the merveilleux-scientifique genre even if it required an easing of its theoretical constraints. For a decade, he established the Maurice Renard prize for a novel of scientific imagination with the objective of legitimizing the genre. From 1922 to 1932, the prize was awarded to ten authors, including Marcel Roland and Alexandre Arnoux. However, their works primarily focused on anticipation and utopia, rendering the nominations a testament to the relaxation of the 1909 manifesto. == Popular literature ==

The merveilleux-scientifique genre emerged in France at the end of the 19th century and thrived until the 1930s, gradually declining in the 1950s. While Maurice Renard's articles were influential, merveilleux-scientifique novels are still considered popular literature due to the themes they explore and their publication media. A generation of writers in love with scientific conjecture 's The Horla is a merveilleux-scientifique tale before its time. With his short story "The Horla," Guy de Maupassant published a text ahead of its time that blended the fantastic and scientific approaches. The author narrates the loss of bearings experienced by an individual suffering from the presence of an invisible being in their environment. This 1886 story significantly influenced authors of the merveilleux-scientifique movement, incorporating science, pseudo-science, and spiritualism. depicts an immense cataclysm that overturns the entire human race. Nevertheless, the merveilleux scientifique genre appeared to thrive in 1887, when Rosny aîné published the short novel Les Xipéhuz, which details an encounter between humans and a non-organic intelligence from distant prehistory. Prior to this, merveilleux-scientifique stories had been published unobtrusively. However, this distinctive text achieved great literary success, increasing publicity for the genre. A versatile author, Rosny aîné created non-anthropocentric narratives where humans are depicted as a modest part of a larger cosmic entity, rather than as an end in themselves. Specifically, his work follows an extensive "war of the kingdoms," from the triumphant emergence of our species in prehistoric times to the eventual replacement of Homo sapiens by another life form that dominates the Earth's surface in the distant future. Thus, in Les Xipéhuz, Rosny aîné presents a confrontation between primitive humanity and an unfamiliar race, and in '''' (1913), he envisions a modern cataclysm that intensifies, compelling humankind to implement social reorganization. The author achieved massive commercial success with these novels, placing him at the forefront of the merveilleux-scientifique movement among his peers and critics to this day. Selected to join the youthful Goncourt literary society together with his brother J.-H. Rosny jeune, he was among the individuals who granted the primary Prix Goncourt to a novel of the merveilleux scientifique: Force ennemie by Franco-American writer John-Antoine Nau, which was published in 1903. The novel centers on the subject of space travel through mental projection, in which an extraterrestrial lodges in the narrator's mind while exploring a potential invasion. Two years later, the Prix Goncourt was awarded to '''', a speculative novel by Claude Farrère that envisions a future conflict between France and Great Britain. Around the same time, the literary works of H. G. Wells also gained popularity, with regular reviews in the French press. Under the inspiration of several French authors, the genre acquired credibility in literature concurrently with Maurice Renard's theorization of it as the merveilleux-scientifique genre. For the writer, this pursuit of credibility was a genuine challenge, given that it was a genre he authored himself. His numerous novels embrace popular In the realm of Wells' literature, Rosny aîné and Maurice Renard emerge as the pioneers of an up-and-coming literary genre despite not being widely recognized by the public. Nevertheless, the genre distinguishes itself by providing readers with sensational and extraordinary experiences, limited only by the author's imagination. These experiences include scenarios such as the Eiffel Tower theft, various invasions, and even apocalyptic endings. In 1908, Jean de La Hire released ''''. The novel tells the story of a group of Earthlings who are abducted by a spaceship and transported to Mercury and Venus. This widely popular work solidified La Hire's position as a prominent figure in pre-war French science fiction. Converted to profitable popular literature, he further explored the realm of merveilleux scientifique with his successful series featuring the adventures of Léo Saint-Clair le Nyctalope. Additionally, he delved into children's literature with Les Trois Boy-scouts and ''Les Grandes aventures d'un boy-scout., Maurice Leblanc also tried his hand at the merveilleux scientifique with ''. Popular enthusiasm for new scientific and pseudo-scientific theories was embraced by authors and subsequently translated into adventure novels. Objective evaluations of theories were prioritized in these works. Non-scientist writers of merveilleux-scientifique tales, such as doctors André Couvreur and , drew inspiration from popular science magazines. Despite not believing in the existence of such canals, French astronomer Camille Flammarion shared in the belief that life existed on Mars. In 1889, the novel Uranie was published, which describes the journey of an astronomer through the stars, with Mars as one of the stages. '' comparing the appearance of surgeons to that of "mysterious alchemists" (27 April 1924) By the end of the 19th century, scientific progress was predominantly viewed as advantageous. However, with subsequent conflicts and wars, this perspective shifted, and the association between scientific advancements and humanity's destructive tendencies became prevalent. Driven by this shift, the figure of the Machiavellian scientist, such as Gustave Le Rouge's '''' (1912-1913), gained popularity. The practitioner is a leader of an underground criminal organization who conducts "carnoplasty" experiments, meaning the modification of human bodies, under the influence of Alexis Carrel's pioneering research on organ transplantation. The outbreak of World War I marked a significant turning point in the innovation of scientific breakthroughs. While writers in the United States, a country relatively spared from the horrors of war, continued to explore science as progress for mankind, European - and particularly French - disillusionment with beneficent science significantly darkened the genre's themes, ultimately becoming essentially pessimistic. Furthermore, during the post-war era, writers of science fiction seemed to have lost their connection to technological advancements (such as astronautical testing, research into nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics) despite their previous close following of scientific research. Instead, they relied on nostalgic themes such as the end of the world, lost worlds, and evil mad scientists to construct their plots. Contemporary critics generally consider merveilleux scientifique a minor genre with vague and imprecise forms. However, this literature has influenced the evolution of the popular genre, encouraging major authors such as Maurice Leblanc, Guy de Téramond, Gaston Leroux, , , Gustave Le Rouge, and Jacques Spitz For instance, Maurice Leblanc recounts in ' (1919) the experience of a scientist who develops a B-ray-treated coating allowing past images to appear on a wall, as during a cinematograph session. Similarly, in ' (1923), Gaston Leroux incorporates the themes of automata, human transplants, and vampirism within a scientific framework. The favourite themes of merveilleux scientifique . The merveilleux-scientifique genre, as defined by Maurice Renard, takes as its starting point an alteration of a scientific law, whose consequences the author must imagine. The proponents of this genre are interested not only in pseudosciences considered as deception, such as levitation, metagnomy, metempsychosis, and telepathy, but also in future discoveries such as time travel, miniaturization of beings, and carnoplasty. That is why researchers and engineers, who initiate discoveries and the consequent adventures, are the preferred characters in captivating scientific novels. imagines a man with X-ray vision after a minor operation. Cover of '''' drawn by . Biological laws are a subject of modification for researchers. This renders the human body as a malleable substance for well-intentioned or not so well-intentioned scientists to work with. The themes of invisibility, mutation, immortality, and the superman were common in Jean de La Hire's nineteen novels about the Nyctalope's adventures. The Nyctalope is a man with augmented vision and an artificial heart, while the Hictaner is a man hybridized with a shark in '''' (1910). Louis Boussenard took inspiration from H. G. Wells' The Invisible Man to write '''' (1907), a nihilist steals the chemical process that allows him to become invisible in order to assassinate Russian dignitaries. Authors of merveilleux scientifique systematically seek analogies between scientific phenomena, exploring new facets of augmented humanity. For instance, Maurice Renard's '''' (1913) depicts the ability of Professor Bouvancourt to traverse matter using the penetrating power of X-rays on the human body, echoing François Dutilleul's capabilities from Marcel Aymé's Le Passe-Muraille (1941). In "Un homme chez les microbes" (1928), Renard utilizes the character of a talented scientist to depict the journey of Fléchambeau, who can shrink himself to meet the atomic people. Conversely, in "" (1909), In 1912, Paul Arosa presented Les Mystérieuses Études du professeur Kruhl, which featured a German scientist who succeeded in sustaining the head of a guillotined man, similar to the magic performances of Georges Méliès and music-hall shows that exhibited living severed heads. The same year saw the publication of ''L'Homme à deux têtes'' by F.C. Rosensteel, which similarly explored this macabre theme. 's '''' in 1921, on the other hand, involved Professor Fringue transplanting an individual's brain into the skull of a gorilla. In ' (1929), a researcher formulates a method to create superhumans for the purpose of equalizing all men. ' (1927) by Octave Béliard provides another instance of biological laws being manipulated, when a scientist creates a population of 30 cm-tall individuals with accelerated growth that eventually surpasses the scientist's control. Finally, Louis Forest's On Vole des Enfants à Paris (1906) and Guy de Téramond's ''L'Homme qui Peut Tout (1910) explore the possibility of transforming the minds of children and criminals to enhance their cognitive abilities, while depicts in Nounlegos'' (1919) a phrenologist scientist who developed a device for reading the human brain, without resorting to brain modification. , Robert Darvel encounters a Martian bat in '''' in 1908. The popularization of pseudoscientific theories inspired fiction writers to explore the psychic realm. Gustave Le Rouge, in his two-part work ' (1908) and ' (1909), envisions an interstellar journey accomplished through the collective psychic energy of thousands of yogis who successfully propel protagonist engineer Robert Dravel to Mars. In ''L' me du docteur Kips (1912), Maurice Champagne portrays metempsychosis through a fakir who aids in the reincarnation of the hero in India. Joseph Jacquin and Aristide Fabre investigate the anabiosis abilities of fakirs in Le sommeil sous les blés (1927) while scientists artificially generate life by theft of psychic energy in Ville hantée (1911-1912) by Léon Groc and Le Voleur de cerveaux'' (1920) by . Finally, authors in the scientific genre emphasize the risks of using telepathy and mind control, exemplified in André Couvreur and Michel Corday's Le Lynx (1911). The novel chronicles the adventures of a person who gains the ability to read minds by consuming a drug. Similarly, in '', Jean de La Hire depicts Baron Glô van Warteck, a villainous mastermind who has created a tool that boosts his psychic abilities. He employs this device to enslave his adversaries and prey worldwide. Other writers utilize substances like radium to generate scientific fantasies in their plots. In Les idées de Monsieur Triggs (1936),Jean Ray presents a stone with properties akin to radium to Harry Dickson, his valiant private detective. The stone cures skin diseases and causes explosions, thus serving as a unique and powerful tool. Similarly, features a transparent spaceship made of ether in '' (1929), a novel that received the Prix Jules-Verne award in the same year, showcasing his imaginative writing skills. The vanishing of certain materials is a recurring motif in conjectural literature, exemplified by the loss of metal in Gaston de Pawlowski's Les Ferropucerons (1912) and Serge-Simon Held's La Mort du fer (1931). Additionally, scientific innovations played a significant role in this imaginative literature. With his series of novels, Le Nyctalope, Jean de La Hire portrays advanced technology in vivid detail, featuring aircraft that can hover, electric submarines, rockets propelled by Hertzian waves, and highly advanced weaponry. inhabitant in Antarctica, in ''''. Intimately connected to adventure novels due to their association with the extraordinary, conjectural novels give significant emphasis to travel, whether it be on unexplored territories of Earth, other planets, or even through time with the exploration of unknown life forms. - J.H. Rosny aîné extensively examined these topics in ''Les Navigateurs de l'infini'' (1925) and its sequel ' (1960), along with the terrestrial realms uncovered in ' (1891) and '''' (1893, co-written with his brother J.-H. Rosny jeune). These works follow the protagonist, an explorer journeying through uncharted territories, as he discovers alternate civilizations. The solar system is a popular subject for novelists to describe the possibility of inhabited planets. Some famous examples include Mercury in Jean de La Hire's La Roue fulgurante (1908) and José Moselli's Le Messager de la planète (1924), Venusians in Maurice Leblanc's Les Trois Yeux (1920), and Martians in various novels about the Red Planet, such as Arnould Galopin's Docteur Oméga and Henri Gayar's Aventures merveilleuses de Serge Myrandhal (1908). Some famous examples include Mercury in Jean de La Hire's La (1908) and José Moselli's '''' (1924), Venusians in Maurice Leblanc's '''' (1920), and Martians in various novels about the Red Planet, such as Arnould Galopin's Docteur Oméga and Henri Gayar's '' (1908). In addition to life forms discovered on lost or neighboring planets, this literature exposes the existence of races that surround us without our awareness. One example of such a race is the Sarvants, an intelligent arachnoid species that evolves in the stratosphere. Maurice Renard details this discovery in The Blue Peril'' (1911). Similarly, in Rosny aîné's short story ' (1895), the narrator Gueldrois employs his augmented vision to detect invisible geometric life forms prevalent in our surroundings. Finally, the concept of time travel, with or without the aid of a machine, is widely explored by scientific fiction writers. In his novel ' (1902), Albert Robida describes a scenario where after an unknown cataclysm, the Earth reverses its rotation, causing time to flow backwards. In the satirical novel "" (1923), André Blandin and Théo Varlet describe the exploits of Poilus who, having come across The Time Machine described by H. G. Wells, accidentally transport their entire infantry troop to 14th-century Valencia, in the midst of a medieval war between the Spanish and Arab armies. '', published in 1890, Albert Robida depicts with his usual satirical eye the progress of an epidemic, the accidental result of "humanitarian and political" research. Finally, another favorite theme of this literary genre is anticipation. Anticipation novels enable us to envision the effects of technological advancements on daily life, both in the near and distant future, or to envision a future world, whether utopian or dystopian. For instance, in 1910-1911, illustrator Henri Lanos and Jules Perrin co-authored Un monde sur le monde, a speculative fiction in an ambiguous future where a billionaire faces an uprising triggered by the erection of a towering city of 1,900 meters. Léon de Tinseau's '''' (1912-1913) portrays a post-apocalyptic world in the year 2000, plunged into savagery after a global warfare. Ben Jackson's novel, ''L' ge Alpha ou la marche du temps'' (1942), takes place in a city of the 21st century characterized by high levels of inequality and widespread use of atomic energy. 's Omega: The Last Days of the World The theme of anticipated future conflict recurs throughout Albert Robida's works, beginning with War in the 20th Century (1887), tetralogy '''' (1888-1896) and Albert Bonneau's series '' (1928-1931). This topic is also examined by astronomer Camille Flammarion in the 1893 work Omega: The Last Days of the World''. This text is both an anticipatory novel and a scientific essay discussing potential ways for the planet Earth to come to an end. Publication media that encourage a popular audience Maurice Renard encouraged his colleagues to embrace and promote the use of science fiction. proponents of the genre were primarily popular novelists who published their works in large-circulation periodicals and publishing houses geared towards workers. To captivate their readers, writers crafted exciting tales with archetypal heroes and applied these storylines to merveilleux scientifique, as well as popular genres like sentimental literature, historical adventure stories, and detective tales. By the close of the 19th century, various scientific journals published scientific adventure tales alongside popularization articles. The ', established by , and ' magazine, founded by the , published serialized works in the field of merveilleux scientifique in addition to travel accounts. Meanwhile, '' by Louis Figuier featured popular science articles alongside novels by authors Louis Boussenard and Count . General interest magazines also published a variety of serialized novels, including Lectures pour tous, which contained short stories from various authors such as Octave Béliard, Maurice Renard, Raoul Bigot, Noëlle Roger, and J.-H. Rosny aîné. Rosny aîné. Additionally, the magazines operated by Pierre Lafitte - the daily and monthly Je sais tout - featured works by Guy de Téramond, Léon Groc, André Couvreur, Michel Corday, and additional short stories by Maurice Renard and J.-H. Rosny aîné, Maurice Leblanc, Michel Corday, Paul Arosa, and Jules Perrin were notable authors of speculative fiction in early 20th-century France. Additionally, certain daily newspapers, including L'Intransigeant, which featured multiple novels by Maurice Renard and Léon Groc, and Le Matin'', which published works by Maurice Renard, Jean de La Hire, and Gaston Leroux, File:Journal des voyages n°705 (5 juin 1910).jpg|'''' No. 705, june 1910. File:Sciences et Voyages n°4 (novembre 1919).jpg|'''' No. 4, november 1919. File:La Science et la Vie n° 69 (mars 1923).jpg|Science & Vie No. 69, march 1923. File:Je sais tout (juin 1928).jpg|Je sais tout, june 1928. , including some merveilleux-scientifique novels such as André Delcamp's ''L'Homme au masque de chair'', published in 1935 in the "Le Livre populaire" collection by Fayard. Several successful publishing houses, frequently producing large print runs, are also engaged in distributing novels related to merveilleux scientifique. However, no particular compilation explicitly categorizes itself as a representative of this genre. Four publishers, namely Albert Méricant, , , and Pierre Lafitte, are notable for their consistent catalogs. published multiple works by Gustave Le Rouge and Paul d'Ivoi in the "Le Roman d'Aventures" series (1908-1909). Additionally, works by Leon Groc, Jules Hoche, and Jean de Quirielle were published in the "Les Recits Mysterieux" collection (1912-1914). Editions Tallandier regularly had covers illustrated by . They offered two collections, the "Bibliothèque des Grandes Aventures" (1927-1930), featuring authors such as , , Paul d'Ivoi, Louis Boussenard, and René Thévenin. This was followed by '''' (1939-1941), with reprints by H. J. Magog, André Couvreur, and Léon Groc. In addition to his periodicals, Pierre Lafitte published science fiction novels through his publishing house . These novels were notably featured in the "Idéal-Bibliothèque" collection, which included works by Clément Vautel and Maurice Renard, as well as in the "Point d'interrogation" detective collection, which featured some speculative works by Maurice Leblanc. Ferenczi & Sons contributed to the distribution of merveilleux-scientifique novels through several collections. Many of the covers were illustrated by Henri Armengol. Some of the collections include "The Great Novels", "Trips and Adventures", "The Adventure Book", "The Small Adventure Novel", "The Secret Police Files," and "The Novels of Guy de Téramond," a collection dedicated to this particular author. Concurrently, science fiction literature was expanding abroad. Several novels in the scientific imagination genre were translated and published in Italy, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Russia, and Spain a few months after their release in France. Notably, Il Romanzo Mensile, an Italian magazine, published 26 tales of scientific imagination between 1908 and 1933. Some of the most famous stories by authors such as Maurice Renard (''L'Homme truqué), Guy de Téramond (''), File:Le mystérieux docteur Cornélius - Patria - fascicule n°4.jpg|The adventures of Dr. Cornelius are translated and published abroad. Cover by for the Dutch version published in 1927. File:Il Romanzo Mensile - 1915-09-15.jpg|Riccardo Salvadori, regular illustrator for Il Romanzo Mensile magazine, illustrates the Italian version of Guy de Téramond's ''''. File:Maurice Renard - Orlakovy ruce.jpg|Maurice Renard's novel ''Les Mains d'Orlac'' was translated into Czech in 1926, six years after its French publication. File:La Hire - Sverkayushcheye koleso.jpg|An interstellar tale, Jean de La Hire's was translated into Russian in 1908. File:Gaston Leroux - The Machine to kill.jpg|The English version of Gaston Leroux's was published by The Macaulay Company in 1935. == Other media for merveilleux scientifique ==

cathedral house the central aircraft station in Albert Robida's Le Vingtième Siècle (1883). Enchanting science through illustrations Illustrators played a significant role in the development of merveilleux scientifique due to their graphic imagination. The first generation of illustrators ventured to utilize innovative imagery, satire, and caricature in the French press. Gradually, the illustrations became less exaggerated as artists developed their own unique style. Experimentation occurred on the covers of both magazines and novels, as well as within the pages of speculative fictional accounts. In fact, illustrators prioritized technological fantasy over scientific accuracy, resulting in a visual rather than scientific approach. Consequently, scenes frequently portray individuals attired in three-piece suits and top hats, mingling with futuristic apparatuses like "telephonoscopes" and aerial railroads. by Jean-Marc Côté for the ''En l'an 2000'' (1910) series of futuristic postcards. Moreover, illustrators are tasked with illustrating the writings of novelists who extrapolate scientific inventions and those of scientists who aim to popularize scientific knowledge, resulting in a combination of genres and a reciprocal exchange between the fantastical and the scientific. To convey scientific imagery, often consisting of unrealistic visuals, illustrators must employ their imagination to make it understandable to the reader. For instance, when viewed under a microscope, microbes may resemble snakes or amphibians. Illustration is crucial in developing a merveilleux-scientifique imaginary by continuously blending visual elements between the two components. This is achieved through various means, including the evoked theme, the alternating of incredible stories and scientific articles, or the use of photomontage. The use of the technique that combines photographs and painted inserts, which was frequently utilized in Je sais tout magazine, serves to accentuate the connection between wonder and science. Alongside magazine interior illustrations and novel covers, numerous other media aided in the proliferation of this merveilleux-scientifique imagery. For instance, in the 1950s, the chocolatier Cantaloup-Catala published a collection of postcards and collectible images titled "Anticipation... life in the year 2000" to idealize the future means of transportation. '', February 1905. The depiction of the futuristic city is a recurring theme in the graphic art of merveilleux scientifique. Its significance goes beyond just being a mere setting; it symbolizes the society of the future and provides a pretext for showcasing a favorite illustration theme - the juxtaposition of man and his monumental surroundings. Airborne vehicles dancing against a backdrop of disproportionate architecture is a common feature of this imagery. The planes disembark a constant flow of travelers on the rooftops functioning as flight decks. '' in 1909, Henri Armengol designed the cover for the novel published by Ferenczi in 1922. With the rise of the merveilleux-scientifique genre, illustrators began to establish their own unique styles. Albert Robida, a prosperous cartoonist and novelist, is an emblematic example. He advocated for progress, but also harbored concerns about its potential excesses. Robida conveyed his imaginative concepts and visionary inventions through a diverse range of media, including posters, lithographs, caricatures, and novels. Through all of these art forms, he primarily sought to highlight humanity's flaws with humor. While Robida was a prolific illustrator of this graphic genre between the end of the 19th century and World War I, several emblematic artists of merveilleux-scientifique imagery emerged after the war. Among them is Henri Lanos, who began his career in conjectural graphics by illustrating H.G. Wells' novel "The Sleeper Awakes" (1899) and later contributed to many popular science articles. Increasingly popular, the artist developed a unique visual style characterized by frequent use of bird's-eye views depicting chaotic scenes or individuals juxtaposed with massive structures. Toussaint also illustrated the covers of numerous collections for the Tallandier publishing house, including almost the entire "La Bibliothèque des grandes aventures" collection with its blue-backed covers. Finally, in popular literature illustration, illustrators such as Gino Starace and Georges Vallée collaborated with numerous publishers, whereas the majority only occasionally entered the field of conjecture. For instance, Albert Guillaume illustrated a special issue of ''L'Assiette au beurre'' in 1901 dedicated to space, and Arnould Moreau illustrated Octave Béliard's short story ''La Journée d'un Parisien au xxie siècle in Lectures pour tous'' in 1910. Noël's drawings are closer to industrial art and primarily focus on technical aspects, which distinguishes them from the poetic style of his predecessor. This shift in generations exemplifies the overall progression of magazines, which increasingly prioritize technical advancements over the thought experiments promoted by the Renardian merveilleux-scientifique model. File:France in XXI Century. War cars.jpg|Automobiles de guerre, color lithograph from the ''En l'an 2000'' series (1910). File:L'Assiette au beurre n° 37.jpg|''L'Assiette au beurre'' devoted an issue to the conquest of the air. This satirical exercise in anticipation is entirely illustrated by Albert Guillaume (December 1901). File:Henri Lanos - Un monde sur le monde.jpg|Henri Lanos illustrates Un monde sur le monde, a dystopian novel co-written with and serialized in magazine (1910-1911). File:Monsieur Rien - Louis Boussenard - illustration de Georges Conrad.jpg|A variation on the theme of the invisible man, by Louis Boussenard (1907) is illustrated by , a regular contributor to the "La Vie d'aventures" collection. File:Gino Starace - L'Espion X.323 - Le Canon du sommeil (Paul d'Ivoi).jpg|Famous illustrator of Fantômas, Gino Starace occasionally ventures into the merveilleux-scientifique genre. Cover of 's Canon du sommeil (1908). File:Gino Starace - L'Île engloutie (Maurice Champagne).jpg|Underwater explorers and living fossils on the cover of 's ''L'Île engloutie'' (1929). Merveilleux scientifique theater plays are occasionally rooted in the merveilleux-scientifique genre. In October 1884, M. Bauer directed an original presentation at the Théâtre Antoine-Simone Berriau in Paris: "Les Invisibles". The performance showcased microbial life forms using a scientific apparatus that functioned as both a giant microscope and an overhead projector, projecting images on a vast white curtain. The themes explored in the show, such as personification, miniaturization, and the vision of the invisible, were popular in merveilleux-scientifique literature. The figures are elucidated by Laguerche, an actor dressed in formal attire, who assumes the part of a host and intellectual. Bauer's show falls under the classification of merveilleux-scientifique theater. During this time, educational-scientific theater emphasized different medical disorders. Playwright André de Lorde utilized this inspiration to develop his horror performances centering on perilous mental patients, presented at the Théâtre du Grand-Guignol during the early 20th century and beyond. As the son of a doctor, André de Lorde aimed to enhance the authenticity and impact of his productions. Consequently, he partnered with psychologist Alfred Binet on five occasions to secure scientific validation. Moreover, Lorde staged eerie plays within the merveilleux-scientifique category and maintained a friendship with Maurice Renard. In "L'Horrible Expérience" (1909), a drama co-written with Binet, Dr. Charrier attempts to revive his deceased daughter, but ultimately succumbs to strangulation by her corpse. This story was likely inspired by one of Henri-Étienne Beaunis's Contes Physiologiques. Furthermore, "Le Laboratoire des Hallucinations" (1916) features a different practitioner conducting medical experiments on his wife's lover as an act of revenge. == Decline and fall into obscurity ==

. The advocates of the merveilleux-scientifique genre have not succeeded in establishing a well-defined category. They did not endeavor to create a periodical or anthology labeled as such, which would not only provide the genre with coherence and unity, but also allow readers to recognize it as such. Despite some truly original works, the genre failed to rejuvenate itself and its themes appeared to recede. Space travel was restricted to the solar system, and scientific progress was mainly presented as a hazard rather than a social advancement. Furthermore, authors are producing fewer speculative stories. The most recent novel by J.-H. Rosny aîné, ''Les Navigateurs de l'infini'', was published in 1925. Similarly, Maurice Renard, who was no longer financially comfortable after the war, spaced out his works on the subject in order to concentrate on more commercially successful stories. In his article "Depuis Sinbad" (1923), he expressed his disappointment at such economic limitations. The two largest popular publishing houses, Ferenczi and Tallandier, make no distinction between merveilleux-scientifique novels and adventure and travel stories, giving the genre a lower profile. The Prix Maurice-Renard disappeared in 1932 when Serge-Simon Held declined to accept his award, while Hachette Editions established the Prix Jules-Verne in 1927 via the Lectures pour Tous magazine. The prize's promoters aimed to rejuvenate the scientific novel's foundations by placing it under the famous novelist from Nantes's patronage. In fact, using Jules Verne as a literary reference is helpful in avoiding excessive imagination by emphasizing scientific elements over the fantastic. Additionally, employing this French literary figure serves to reinforce the legitimacy of the genre while supporting a marketing campaign to increase sales of the Hetzel collection, which has been owned by Hachette since July 1914. In 1925, Offenstadt Brothers Publishing House lost their case against Abbé Calippe's classification of Sciences et Voyages as a hazardous magazine for young people. The ruling adversely affected not only the magazine but also all imaginative scientific literature during the interwar era, causing it to practice self-censorship. After World War II, the literature in question was due to concerns about its negative impact on young people and influence on juvenile delinquency. According to writer and essayist Serge Lehman, the "merveilleux scientifique" genre ended in 1953 with B.R. Bruss's '''', the final identifiable novel in the genre. Parallel to this decline, the French public discovered "science fiction", a literary genre imported from the United States by Raymond Queneau, Michel Pilotin, and Boris Vian. Its promoters presented it as modern literature created by American authors in the 1920s, of which Jules Verne was only a distant ancestor. This genre not only renewed themes of merveilleux-scientifique, but also surpassed the output of pre-war French writers. Faced with changes in the literary landscape, the younger generation of French authors adopted Anglo-Saxon themes and asserted their control over the "science fiction" genre. As a result, the merveilleux-scientifique genre, considered inferior due to its popular appeal, faded into obscurity while Jules Verne and American authors gained prominence. In collective memory, the latter has overshadowed 50 years of imaginative scientific literature, now known as "literary Atlantis". == Posterity ==

At the start of the 21st century, the genre of science fiction and fantasy has made a resurgence in popularity. This has been due to not only the republishing of numerous stories from previous decades but also the appropriation of its unique aesthetic and iconic characters by new writers who now have access to these public domain creations. However, the growing critical study of this speculative literature accompanies this renewed interest. scientific discoveries and providing insights into the genre. The magazine Fiction also published his articles on several turn-of-the-century writers. Enthusiasts of turn-of-the-century popular literature came together in the mid-1960s to share their collections. They produced fanzines containing book listings and reviews, among which two mimeographed newsletters emerged as prominent among collectors: the publication Désiré (1965-1981), edited by Jean Leclercq, and ''Le Chasseur d'Illustrés, renamed Le Chercheur des Publications d'autrefois'' in 1971, (1967-1977) by Marcel Lagneau and . The newsletters' reputations were well-established. Beyond these circles of science fiction enthusiasts, it was not until the 1970s that science fiction specialists delved into the production of merveilleux-scientifique works, which subsequently led to publication for general audiences. Pierre Versins' '''' (1972) and Jacques Van Herp's Panorama de la science-fiction (1974) represented the earliest comprehensive research on the genre. In 1999, Serge Lehman published "Les mondes perdus de l'anticipation française" in Le Monde diplomatique, bringing attention to a neglected section of French-language literary heritage. In 2006, he followed up with the publication of the short story collection "Chasseurs de chimères". The text already adheres to all the given principles and consists of a single sentence without any context to expand on. Therefore, the revised text is ''L'Âge d'or de la science-fiction française (The Golden Age of French Science Fiction''), in which he undertakes an initial reflection on this literature of scientific imagination. A number of specialized websites, such as Philippe Ethuin's ArchéoSF and Jean-Luc Boutel's ''Sur l'autre face du monde, are also part of this rediscovery movement, taking stock of and critiquing these early works. In 2000, Jean-Marc Lofficier released French Science Fiction, Fantasy, Horror, and Pulp Fiction'', an extensive encyclopedia in English about French-language science fiction. publishes in 2018, with his colleague Guy Costes, the '''' devoted to French-speaking conjectural literature and imagery. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, academic literature on scientific imagination is gaining significance, and many studies are being published. Jean-Marc Gouanvic published his thesis on French science fiction in the 20th century (1900-1968) in 1994. wrote Ces Français qui ont écrit demain in 2012, followed by Daniel Fondanèche's ''La Littérature d'imagination scientifique in 2013. These various critical studies are supported by publications in recently established magazines focusing on popular literature such as Rocambole, Le Belphégor, Le Visage vert, and the digital magazine Res Futurae, as well as highly specialized ones like Le Téléphonoscope, which concentrates on Albert Robida and his works, and Le Quinzinzinzili, the Messacquian bulletin that examines the literary output of Régis Messac. In 2018, Guy Costes and Joseph Altairac, both science fiction specialists, published ''. The encyclopedia provides a comprehensive inventory of all French-language conjectural literature and imagery, paying explicit tribute to Pierre Versins' encyclopedia. In 2019, Fleur Hopkins, an art history doctoral student, is curating an exhibition at the Bibliothèque nationale de France titled "Le merveilleux-scientifique. Une science-fiction à la française". This exhibition provides a sincere acknowledgment to the merveilleux-scientifique genre and aims to enhance its visibility amongst the general audience. A literary genre in its own right While merveilleux scientifique was once referred to as various names for imaginative scientific literature in the early 20th century, by the post-war years it became closely associated with the science fiction genre. During this time period, it was commonly called "proto-science fiction", "ancient science fiction", or "primitive science fiction" as it introduced themes found in modern science fiction that emerged in the United States from the 1920s onwards. This link between scientific advancements - identified as the "golden age of French science fiction" by Serge Lehman - and post-war science fiction is evident through their mutual focus on specific themes such as encounters with extraterrestrial life, creation and integration of artificial or augmented beings, and catastrophic events. founded Amazing Stories, the first magazine devoted exclusively to science fiction. However, some researchers challenge the notion that merveilleux scientifique equals "proto-science fiction." Indeed, the interpretation that merveilleux scientifique is merely a genre under construction stems from a teleological viewpoint. However, this interpretation not only erases its own distinct characteristics, but also disregards the fact that it is influenced by various literary traditions, such as the experimental novel, fantasy, and the scientific adventure novel. While discussing scientifiction's definition in Amazing Stories magazine, Hugo Gernsback cites Edgar Allan Poe, Jules Verne, and H.G. Wells as its models but fails to reference any authors of merveilleux-scientifique novels, denying any connection between the two genres. Despite sharing common ancestors and characteristics, merveilleux scientifique and science fiction exhibit significant differences. For instance, the interwar period's merveilleux-scientifique novel portrays a pessimistic view of science, different from the essentially optimistic discourse of Anglo-Saxon science fiction. This resurgence could either be in response to the dominance of Anglo-Saxon science fiction or simply a yearning for a more innocent form of the genre, and although the books were still catered to a niche audience, they were published on a much bigger scale. A second wave of reprints in science fiction literature emerged in the 21st century, with small publishing houses such as , , , , and Black Coat Press leading the way. In this regard, Jean-Marc Lofficier publishes in both English and French languages through his American-owned publishing company, Black Coat Press. The French-language collection is known as . were instrumental in keeping the genre alive. Barjavel, who claims to be the sole heir of Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, has never used the label 'merveilleux-scientifique'. Cornélius Kramm in the miniseries '''' (1984) by . Paradoxically, while French cinema was also abandoning the genre, it found a new home on television after the war in the form of several successful television shows. The tradition of French televisual fantasy, which was developed thanks to technical innovations that allowed for the creation of live-action fakery, reached its peak in the 1960s and 1970s before declining in the mid-1980s. Exploiting the soap opera genre, TV movies rely heavily on adaptations of science-fiction novels, exemplified by ' (1976) directed by , ' (1981) by Yannick Andréi, and '' (1984) by . It relies on successful original creations, including the series Aux frontières du possible (1971-1974), which blends elements of a detective series and scientific anticipation, and La Brigade des Maléfices (1971), which combines detective and fantasy genres, as well as the soap opera '' (1968), which chronicles the esoteric adventures of a journalist controlled by a secret society. If the label "merveilleux scientifique" no longer appears in literature, the foundation of the genre remains intact: the encounter between a human and an extraordinary element, be it an object, a creature, or a physical phenomenon. This principle is handed down to future generations of authors. Authors like René Barjavel (Ashes, Ashes, 1943), Pierre Boulle (Planet of the Apes, 1963), and Robert Merle ('', 1974) drew inspiration from this heritage and reinterpreted it. Even more recently, authors like Bernard Werber (Empire of the Ants, 1991-1996) and Michel Houellebecq (Atomised'', 1998) have continued to do so. In the second half of the 20th century, nascent French science fiction (SF) claimed to exclusively hail from the genre across the Atlantic. However, it was actually the result of multiple currents, with marvelous sci-fi serving as just one. 's The Arctic Marauder (1974). In addition to this contemporary science-fiction, which is influenced by both French and Anglo-Saxon traditions, a fully-developed merveilleux scientifique reemerged at the beginning of the 21st century. This genre mainly resurfaced through the medium of comics. It endured informally during the latter half of the 20th century, particularly with Edgar P. Jacobs began with the adventures of Blake and Mortimer in 1946, followed by Jacques Tardi's The Arctic Marauder in 1974 and The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec series in 1976, both of which reuse markers of merveilleux scientifique, such as the resurgence of prehistoric animals. Another Belgian author duo, François Schuiten and Benoît Peeters, published Les Cités obscures from 1983, which reflects the influence of Jules Verne and Albert Robida. Finally, a resurgence of merveilleux scientifique occurred through the release of the comic series The Chimera Brigade (2009-2010) by authors Serge Lehman and Fabrice Colin. This work serves as both a tribute to classical literature and a modern reinterpretation, presenting numerous European literary superheroes from the early 20th century while also elucidating their disappearance after the events of World War II and the more general concealment of scientific imagination in literary works. Following this series, Serge Lehman updates the genre with three comics - ''L'Homme truqué'' (2013), adapting the short story and novel of the same name by Maurice Renard; ' (2015-2016), featuring the adventures of the Nyctalope; and ' (2012-2013), which showcases a resurgence of merveilleux scientifique in the near future. and his wife Randy are contributing to the rediscovery of the merveilleux-scientifique genre with an encyclopedic work, English translations of key works in the genre, and anthologies of short stories and essays published by Black Coat Press. Among the new generation of authors who resurrect literary heritage, and Enrique Breccia introduce mechanically enhanced super-soldiers during World War I in '''' (2008-2014), Jean-Marc Lofficier and Gil Formosa tackle Jules Verne's character in ' (2003-2005), and Alex Alice delves into the mysteries of the ether in ' (since 2014). These authors do not simply set their narratives in the Belle Époque or rely on familiar literary figures. Rather, they resurrect several important themes of the genre, including exploration, war, and fantastical inventions. Some even adopt a periodical format, as in Le Château des Étoiles, which was originally published in fascicles as a nod to the 19th-century feuilleton tradition. Since 2005, Black Coat Press has been publishing the anthology series "Tales of the Shadowmen", in addition to its reprint work. These collections comprise short stories that narrate the journeys of heroes and villains from popular culture during the 19th and 20th centuries. Furthermore, starting from 2007, the series has been available in French under the title "Les Compagnons de l'Ombre" within the Rivière Blanche collection. Since 2015, the collection has published an anthological series of short stories titled "Dimension merveilleux scientifique." The short stories, written by various authors, intend to revive the French-language literary genre that has lost popularity. The scientific phenomenon is resurfacing alongside various literary genres, including steampunk and gaslamp fantasy. Prominent authors of these genres include and Fabrice Colin with ' (1999), Pierre Pevel with his ' cycle (2003-2015), and Estelle Faye with Un éclat de givre (2014). These authors are considered to be the most representative proponents of the early 21st century. File:Mathieu Gaborit - Utopiales 2011.jpg|alt=Photographie de Mathieu Gaborit.|. File:Fabrice Colin, Montreuil, 2018.jpg|alt=Photographie de Fabrice Colin.|Fabrice Colin. File:Estelle Faye - Echos et Merveilles 2025.jpg|alt=Photographie d'Estelle Faye.|Estelle Faye. File:Mons074 Pierre Pevel.jpg|alt=Photographie de Pierre Pevel.|In '''', Pierre Pevel imagines the adventures of magician Louis Denizart Hippolyte Griffont in the early 20th century. == Notes ==