Negro leagues and major league prospects In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the
Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues. Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month (equivalent to about $ per month today). Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him. The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter. In all, Robinson played 47 games at
shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five
home runs, and registering 13
stolen bases. He also appeared in the 1945
East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats. During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues since
Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the
Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at
Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16. The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman
Isadore H. Y. Muchnick. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets. He left the tryout humiliated, Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s,
Branch Rickey, club president and
general manager of the
Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's
International League farm club, the
Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him. In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 per month (equivalent to about $ per month today). Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a
reserve clause. Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was
Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly
Pittsburgh Courier, who, according to
Cleveland Indians owner and team president
Bill Veeck, "influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit." Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945. On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals. In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s. He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues, and black talents
Satchel Paige and
Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first.
Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the
American League the same year as Robinson, said, "One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken." Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with
Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season
barnstorming team in the
California Winter League. Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs.
Minor leagues In 1946, Robinson arrived at
Daytona Beach, Florida, for
spring training with the
Montreal Royals of the
Class AAA International League.
Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodgers affiliate, but Rickey refused. in July 1946, the year before he was called up to the majors|alt=A black man in a baseball uniform with the words "Royals" and a baseball cap with the letter "M". Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist
Mary McLeod Bethune. Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or
Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In
Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach. In
Jacksonville, the
stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director. In
DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting. After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the
de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to
second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base. Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946,
Roosevelt Stadium hosted the
Jersey City Giants' season opener against the
Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs. Pitching against Robinson was
Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five
at bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third
inning. He also scored four
runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory. Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349
batting average and .985
fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a
Southern exhibition tour, for example), Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards. In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived
Los Angeles Red Devils.
Brooklyn Dodgers (1947–1956) Breaking the color barrier (1947) In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. With
Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a
first baseman. On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black. Although he failed to get a base hit, he reached second on a throwing error and scored the winning run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory. Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager
Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded." Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. According to a press report, the
St. Louis Cardinals threatened to
strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League. Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the
New York Herald Tribunes
Rud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his
Tribune colleague and editor,
Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland. The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League President
Ford Frick and
Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. "You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts," Frick was quoted as saying. "I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another." Woodward's article received the
E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the
Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager
Ben Chapman called Robinson a "
nigger" from their
dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields". Rickey later recalled that Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men." However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson named
Lee "Jeep" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well. Dodgers teammate
Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them." In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati. A
statue by sculptor
William Behrends, unveiled at
KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.
Jewish baseball star
Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he "whispered a few words into Robinson's ear", which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement". Robinson also talked frequently with
Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the
American League with the
Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season. Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the
Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an
on-base percentage of .383, and a .427
slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31
doubles, 5
triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in
sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29. His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural
Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949). That year, the
Brooklyn Dodgers won the National League pennant and went on to face the
Yankees in the
1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7.
MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) Following Stanky's trade to the
Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980
fielding percentage that year (second in the
National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season. In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he
hit for the cycle—a
home run, a
triple, a
double, and a
single in the same game. The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the
World Series. .|alt=A black man in a Brooklyn Dodgers uniform and a cap with the letter "B", smiling while holding a plaque. Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.
Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the
American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and
Satchel Paige played for the
Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $ today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a
vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate. In 1948, Wendell Smith's book,
Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer
George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949. In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124
runs batted in with 122 runs scored. That year, a song about Robinson by
Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts;
Count Basie recorded a famous version. Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the
New York Yankees in the
1949 World Series. Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the
United States House of Representatives'
Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor
Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. (left, playing Dodgers president
Branch Rickey) and Robinson In 1950, Robinson led the National League in
double plays made by a second baseman with 133. The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.
The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star." Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner
Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's
prima donna". In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise. Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the
Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."
Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the
Montreal Standard as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered. During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant on
Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the
Shot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster
Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was." He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-high
on-base percentage of .436. That year, on the television show
Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager,
George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter
Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness." The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the
outfield, with
Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the
Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the
New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another
World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats. He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for
Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend
Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star
Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.
World Series championship and retirement (1954–1956) In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a
third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base. Robinson, then 36 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals. After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rival
New York Giants for
Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $ today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of
Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to
Look magazine two years previously, ==Legacy==