Polish orthography

The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the (graphically similar to the acute accent) in the letters ć, ń, ó, ś, ź; the (overdot) in the letter ż; the stroke in the letter ł; and the ("little tail") in the letters ą, ę. There are 32 letters in the Polish alphabet: 9 vowels and 23 or 26 consonants. The letters q (named ), v (named or rarely ), and x (named ) are used in some foreign words and commercial names. In loanwords q and v are often replaced by kw and w, respectively, and x by ks or gz (as in "quartz", "veranda", "extra", , "exosphere"). When giving the spelling of words, certain letters may be said in more emphatic ways to distinguish them from other identically pronounced characters. For example, H may be referred to as ("h alone") to distinguish it from CH (). The letter Ż may be called ("Ż with a dot") to distinguish it from RZ (). The letter U may be called ("open u", a reference to its graphical form) or ("regular u"), to distinguish it from Ó, which is sometimes called ("closed ó"), or ("ó with a stroke accent"), alternatively or ("o with a stroke accent"). The letter ó is a relic from hundreds of years ago when there was a length distinction in Polish similar to that in Czech, with á and é also being common at the time. Subsequently, the length distinction disappeared and á and é were abolished, but ó came to be pronounced the same as u. Note that Polish letters with diacritics are treated as fully independent letters in alphabetical ordering (unlike in languages such as French, Spanish, and German). For example, comes after . The diacritic letters also have their own sections in dictionaries (words beginning with ć are not usually listed under c). However, there are no regular words that begin with ą or ń. Digraphs Polish additionally uses the digraphs ch, cz, dz, dź, dż, rz, and sz. Combinations of certain consonants with the letter i before a vowel can be considered digraphs: ci as a positional variant of ć, si as a positional variant of ś, zi as a positional variant of ź, and ni as a positional variant of ń (but see a special remark on ni below); and there is also one trigraph dzi as a positional variant of dź. These are not given any special treatment in alphabetical ordering. For example, ch is treated simply as c followed by h, and not as a single letter as in Czech or Slovak (e.g. only has its first letter capitalised, and is sorted after and before ). ==Spelling rules==

Graphemes and values See below for rules regarding spelling of alveolo-palatal consonants. H may be glottal in a small number of dialects. Rarely, is not a digraph and represents two separate sounds: • in various forms of the verb zamarzać – "to freeze" • in various forms of the verb mierzić – "to disgust" • in the place name Murzasichle • in borrowings, for example erzac (from German Ersatz), Tarzan Voicing and devoicing Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the above tables). This is due to the neutralization that occurs at the end of words and in certain consonant clusters; for example, the in klub ("club") is pronounced like a , and the in prze- sounds like . Less frequently, voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds; for example, the in także ("also") is pronounced like a . The conditions for this neutralization are described under Voicing and devoicing in the article on Polish phonology. Palatal and palatalized consonants The spelling rule for the alveolo-palatal sounds , , , and is as follows: before the vowel the plain letters are used; before other vowels the combinations are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms are used. For example, the in siwy ("grey-haired"), the in siarka ("sulphur") and the in święty ("holy") all represent the sound . Special attention should be paid to before plus a vowel. In words of foreign origin the causes the palatalization of the preceding consonant to , and it is pronounced as . This situation occurs when the corresponding genitive form ends in -nii, pronounced as , not with -ni, pronounced as (which is a situation typical to the words of Polish origin). For examples, see the table in the next section. According to one system, similar principles apply to the palatalized consonants , and , except that these can only occur before vowels. The spellings are thus before , and otherwise. For example, the in kim ("whom", instr.) and the in kiedy both represent . In the system without the palatalized velars, they are analyzed as /k/, /ɡ/ and /x/ before /i/ and /kj/, /ɡj/ and /xj/ before other vowels. Other issues with i and j Except in the cases mentioned in the previous paragraph, the letter if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents , but it also has the palatalizing effect on the previous consonant. For example, pies ("dog") is pronounced (). Some words with before plus a vowel also follow this pattern (see below). In fact i is the usual spelling of between a preceding consonant and a following vowel. The letter normally appears in this position only after , and if the palatalization effect described above has to be avoided (as in presja "pressure", Azja "Asia", lekcja "lesson", and the common suffixes -cja "-tion", -zja "-sion": stacja "station", wizja "vision"). The letter after consonants is also used in concatenation of two words if the second word in the pair starts with , e.g. wjazd "entrance" originates from w + . The pronunciation of the sequence wja (in wjazd) is the same as the pronunciation of wia (in wiadro "bucket"). The ending -ii which appears in the inflected forms of some nouns of foreign origin, which have -ia in the nominative case (always after , , , and ; sometimes after , , and other consonants), is pronounced as , with the palatalization of the preceding consonant. For example, dalii (genitive of dalia "dalia"), Bułgarii (genitive of Bułgaria "Bulgaria"), chemii (genitive of chemia "chemistry"), religii (genitive of religia "religion"), amfibii (genitive of amfibia "amphibia"). The common pronunciation is . This is why children commonly misspell and write -i in the inflected forms as armii, Danii or hypercorrectly write ziemii instead of ziemi (words of Polish origin do not have the ending -ii but simple -i, e.g. ziemi, genitive of ziemia). In some rare cases, however, when the consonant is preceded by another consonant, -ii may be pronounced as , but the preceding consonant is still palatalized, for example, Anglii (genitive of Anglia "England") is pronounced . (The spelling Angli, very frequently met with on the Internet, is simply an error in orthography, caused by this pronunciation.) A special situation applies to : it has the full palatalization to before -ii which is pronounced as – and such a situation occurs only when the corresponding nominative form in -nia is pronounced as , not as . For example (pay attention to the upper- and lower-case letters): The ending -ji, is always pronounced as . It appears only after c, s and z. Pronunciation of it as a simple is considered a pronunciation error. For example, (genitive of "pressure") is ; (genitive of "poetry") is ; (genitive of "reason") is . Nasal vowels The letters and , when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by a nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, in dąb ("oak") is pronounced , and in tęcza ("rainbow") is pronounced (the nasal assimilates with the following consonant). When followed by or , and in the case of , also at the end of words by most speakers (in a situation where the speaker pronounces the vowel nasally, it is nasalized only lightly), these letters are pronounced as just or . Homophonic spellings Apart from the cases in the sections above, there are three sounds in Polish that can be spelt in two different ways, depending on the word. Those result from historical sound changes. The correct spelling can often be deduced from the spelling of other morphological forms of the word or cognates in Polish or in other Slavic languages. • can be spelt either or . • only occurs in loanwords; however, many of them have been nativized and are not perceived as loanwords. is used: • when cognate words have the letter , or , e.g.: • • • • when the same letter is used in the language from which the word was borrowed, e.g. the Latinized Greek prefixes , also , etc. • is used: • in all native words, e.g. • when the same digraph is used in the language from which the word was borrowed, e.g. . • can be spelt or ; the spelling indicates that the sound developed from the historical long. • is used: • usually at the beginning of a word (except for ) • always at the end of a word • in the endings • is used: • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter , or , e.g.: • • • • in the endings (except for ) • can be spelt either or ; the spelling indicates that the sound developed from /r̝/ (cf. Czech ). • is used: • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter/digraph , , , , , , e.g.: • • • • • • • in the particle , e.g. • after , , , e.g.: • • • • in loanwords, especially from French, e.g.: • • • • when cognates in other Slavic languages contain the sound or , e.g. – Russian • is used: • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter , e.g. • usually after , , , , , , , , , e.g.: • • • • • • • • • • when cognates in other Slavic languages contain the sound or , e.g. – Russian Other points The letter represents in the digraphs and in loanwords, for example autor, Europa; but not in native words, like nauka, pronounced . There are certain clusters where a written consonant would not normally be pronounced. For example, the in the words mógł ("could") and jabłko ("apple") is omitted in ordinary speech. ==Capitalization==

Names are generally capitalized in Polish as in English. Polish does not capitalize the months and days of the week, nor adjectives and other forms derived from proper nouns (for example, angielski "English"). Titles such as pan ("Mr"), pani ("Mrs/Ms"), lekarz ("doctor"), etc. and their abbreviations are not capitalized, except in written polite address. Second-person pronouns are traditionally capitalized in formal writing (e.g. letters or official emails); so may be other words used to refer to someone directly in a formal setting, like Czytelnik ("reader", in newspapers or books). Third-person pronouns are capitalized to show reverence, most often in a sacred context. Names of people and things The following are capitalized: • Given names and surnames • Nicknames and pseudonyms • Names given to animals and plants • Names of gods and other mythological beings • Names of fictional characters • Personifications of concepts • Names of religious and secular holidays • Brand names • Company names • Names of institutions, organizations, departments, and governments. • Names of prizes, honours, orders, and other awards. The following are not capitalized: • Common names of beings or things • Names of days of the week, months, and seasons • Items whose names are derived from a brand name • Items whose names are derived from a proper noun • Adjectives derived from proper nouns • Names of rituals, customs, parties, and dances • Names of historic events • Names of time periods and eras. Geographic and astronomical terms The following are capitalized: • Names of planets, moons, stars, constellations, and other celestial bodies • Names of continents, oceans, seas, deserts, mountains, islands, etc. • Names of countries, regions, towns, villages, kingdoms, etc. • Names of compass points when they are an essential to the place's name e.g. (North Sea) • and when referring to the cultural East and West respectively. ==Punctuation==

Polish punctuation is similar to that of English. However, there are more rigid rules concerning use of commas—subordinate clauses are almost always marked off with a comma, while it is normally considered incorrect to use a comma before a coordinating conjunction with the meaning "and" (i, a or oraz). Abbreviations (but not acronyms or initialisms) are followed by a period when they end with a letter other than the one which ends the full word. For example, dr has no period when it stands for doktor, but it takes one when it stands for an inflected form such as doktora. Prof. has a period because it comes from profesor (professor). Apostrophes are used to mark the elision of the final sound of foreign words not pronounced before Polish inflectional endings, as in ''Harry'ego (, genitive of Harry – the final is elided in the genitive). However, it is often erroneously used to separate a loanword stem from any inflectional ending, for example, *John'a, which should be Johna (genitive of John''; no sound is elided). Quotation marks are used in different ways: either „ordinary Polish quotes” or «French quotes» (without space) for first level, and ‚single Polish quotes’ or «French quotes» for second level, which gives three styles of nested quotes: • „Quote ‚inside’ quote” • „Quote «inside» quote” • «Quote ‚inside’ quote» Some older prints have used „such Polish quotes“. ==History==

Poles adopted the Latin alphabet in the 12th century. However, that alphabet was ill-equipped to represent certain Polish sounds, such as the palatal consonants and nasal vowels. Consequently, Polish spelling in the Middle Ages was highly inconsistent, as different writers used different systems to represent these sounds, For example, in early documents the letter c could signify the sounds now written c, cz, k, while the letter z was used for the sounds now written z, ż, ś, ź. Writers soon began to experiment with digraphs (combinations of letters), new letters (φ and ſ, no longer used), and eventually diacritics. The Polish alphabet was one of two major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Slavic languages, the other being Czech orthography, characterized by carons (hačeks), as in the letter č. The other major Slavic languages which are now written in Latin-based alphabets (Slovak, Slovene, and Serbo-Croatian) use systems similar to the Czech. Sorbian spelling is also closer to Czech, though it does include more Polish elements than the aforementioned languages. Polish-based orthographies are used for Kashubian and usually Silesian, both spoken in Poland. The letter ƶ is a historical allograph for ż. ==Computer encoding==

There are several different systems for encoding the Polish alphabet for computers. All letters of the Polish alphabet are included in Unicode, and thus Unicode-based encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16 can be used. The Polish alphabet is completely included in the Basic Multilingual Plane of Unicode. ISO 8859-2 (Latin-2), ISO 8859-13 (Latin-7), ISO 8859-16 (Latin-10) and Windows-1250 are popular 8-bit encodings that support the Polish alphabet. The Polish letters which are not present in the English alphabet use the following HTML character entities and Unicode codepoints: For other encodings, see the following table. Numbers in the table are hexadecimal. A common test sentence containing all the Polish diacritic letters is the nonsensical "Zażółć gęślą jaźń". ==See also==