The Kamakura period marked Japan's transition to a land-based economy and the concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with
fiefs of their own; the fief holders then exercised local military rule. Once
Minamoto no Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in
Kamakura. He called his government a , but because he was given the ancient high military title by
Emperor Go-Toba, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the Shogunate. Yoritomo followed the
Fujiwara form of house government and had an , a , and a . After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed
stewards for the estates and
constables for the provinces. As , Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the
Northern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However, the fourth leader of the Northern Fujiwara
Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided in
Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura. ,
Nara. It was made by
Busshi Unkei in 1203. Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son
Minamoto no Yoriie became and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early 13th century, a regency had been established by
Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the
Hōjō clan, a branch of the
Taira that had allied itself with the
Minamoto in 1180. The head of Hōjō was installed as a regent for the ; the regent was termed the during the period, although later positions were created with similar power such as the and the . Often the was also the and . Under the Hōjō, the became a powerless figurehead. With the protection of the Emperor, a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 the
Jōkyū War broke out between the cloistered
Emperor Go-Toba and the second regent
Hōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. The 's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates. Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. In 1225 the third regent
Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority within the Kamakura regime. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—the —in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in
Kyoto were still based on 500-year-old
Confucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing
inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and parts of it remained in effect for the next 635 years. As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the
Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The narrated the rise and fall of the
Taira clan, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the , of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205. == Expansion of Buddhist teachings ==