KH-11 KENNEN

Before KENNEN, National Reconnaissance Office spy satellites such as KH-9 HEXAGON took photographs on film, which was dropped to Earth in capsules. The satellites' useful life ended when they ran out of film or capsules. The Film Read-Out KH-7 GAMBIT (FROG) served as NRO Program A's competitor to NRO Program B's initial electro-optical imagery (EOI) satellite. After a precursor EOI study under the codeword Zoster, President Nixon on 23 September 1971 approved the development of an EOI satellite codenamed Zaman. In November 1971, this codeword was changed to Kennen, which is Middle English for "to perceive". Initial director of the ZAMAN/KENNEN Program Group was Charles R. "Charlie" Roth; he was succeeded in October 1975 by Rutledge P. (Hap) Hazzard. The KENNEN system transmits its imagery as data through the Satellite Data System (SDS), a network of communications satellites. These digital images were initially processed at a secret National Reconnaissance Office facility dubbed Area 58 at Fort Belvoir in Virginia. In 1999, NRO selected Boeing as the prime contractor for the Future Imagery Architecture (FIA) program, which aimed to replace the KH-11 satellites by a more cost-effective constellation of smaller, more capable reconnaissance satellites. After the failure of the FIA in 2005, NRO ordered two more KH-11s from Lockheed. USA-224, the first of these, was launched in early 2011 two years ahead of the initial schedule estimate. == Design ==

Initial design specifications According to Lew Allen, the initial key design elements were specified by Edwin H. Land. They included i) solid state focal plane array, ii) integrated circuits for complex data processing, iii) large, fast optics with a diameter f/2 primary mirror, iv) gigabit/s data link, v) long on-orbit operational lifetime for the imaging satellites, and vi) communication satellites to facilitate close-to-realtime downlink of the images. A NASA history of the Hubble, in discussing the reasons for switching from a 3-meter main mirror to a design, states: "In addition, changing to a 2.4-meter mirror would lessen fabrication costs by using manufacturing technologies developed for military spy satellites". Different versions of the KH-11 vary in mass. Early KH-11s were reported to be comparable in mass to HEXAGON, i.e. about . Later blocks are believed to have a mass of around to . Optical Telescope Assembly A CIA history states that the primary mirror on the first KH-11s measured , but sizes increased in later versions. Later satellites had larger mirrors, with a diameter of around . The focal plane was equipped with an array of light-sensitive silicon diodes, which converted brightness values to electrical signals. The packaging density was sufficiently high (several hundred diodes per inch) to match the ground sample distance of the CORONA satellites. The recorded digital signal was encrypted and transmitted to a ground station in near real time, and written to film by means of a laser in order to recreate the recorded image. The first charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors for KH-11 were developed by Westinghouse Electric Corporation at their Baltimore facility in the later 1970s. KH-11 Block II might have been the first reconnaissance satellite equipped for imaging with an CCD. Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums (probably into infrared). One of the initial on-orbit challenges were failures of the Traveling-wave tubes, which amplified the communications signals sent from the imaging satellite to the relay satellites, and from the relay satellites to the ground stations. During crossings of the ionosphere, ions could build up on the outside of the tubes, which were operated at 14,000 volts. This resulted in repeated sparking and deposition of carbon traces inside the tubes, ultimately shorting them out. The issue could be abated by changing the orbiting satellite's orientation during crossing of the ionosphere, and was finally solved by better shielding of the tubes in follow-up satellites. Resolution and ground sample distance A perfect mirror observing in the visual spectrum (i.e. at a wavelength of 500 nm) has a diffraction limited resolution of around 0.05 arcsec, which from an orbital altitude of corresponds to a ground sample distance of . Operational resolution should be worse due to effects of the atmospheric turbulence. Astronomer Clifford Stoll estimates that such a telescope could resolve up to "a couple inches. Not quite good enough to recognize a face". KH-11 generations Five generations of U.S. electro-optical reconnaissance have been identified: Block I Block I refer to the original KH-11 satellite, of which five were launched between 19 December 1976 and 17 November 1982. Block II The three Block II satellites are in the open literature referred to as KH-11B, the alleged DRAGON codename, or CRYSTAL, and are believed to be capable of taking infrared images in addition to optical observations. Another improvement was an eightfold increase in the download rate compared to earlier models to facilitate improved real-time access and increased area coverage. From Block III on, the typical lifetime of the satellites increased to about 15 years, possibly related to a higher lift-off mass, which facilitates larger fuel reserves for countering atmospheric drag. Block IV Three electro-optical satellites launched in October 2005, January 2011, and August 2013 are attributed to Block IV. Block V A new generation of clandestine communications satellites launched to inclined geosynchronous orbits have led to speculations that these are in support of Block V electro-optical satellites scheduled for launch in late 2018 (NROL-71) and 2021 (NROL-82).{{cite web|title=Spy satellite infrastructure supported by successful Atlas V rocket launch|date=28 July 2016|first=Justin|last=Ray|publisher=Spaceflight Now Based on the published hazard areas for the launch, an orbital inclination of 74° has been deduced for NROL-71. This could indicate that NROL-71 is targeted for a Type II Multi Sun-Synchronous Orbit,{{cite web|title=On Sun-Synchronous Orbits and Associated Constellations|date=7 December 2018|first=Daniele|last=Mortari|publisher=cranfield.ac.uk == Derivatives ==

The Misty satellite is believed to have been derived from the KH-11, but modified to make it invisible to radar, and hard to detect visually. The first Misty satellite, USA-53, was released by the on mission STS-36 in 1990. The USA-144 satellite, launched on 22 May 1999 by a Titan IVB from Vandenberg Air Force Base may have been a second Misty satellite, or an Enhanced Imaging System spacecraft. The satellites are sometimes identified as KH-12s. In January 2011, NRO donated to NASA two space Optical Telescope Assemblies with diameter primary mirrors, similar in size to the Hubble Space Telescope, yet with steerable secondary mirrors and shorter focal length (resulting in a wider field of view). These were initially believed to be KH-11 series "extra hardware", but were later attributed to the cancelled Future Imaging Architecture program. The mirrors are to be used by NASA as the primary and spare for the Roman Space Telescope. == Compromises ==

of a Kiev-class aircraft carrier, as published by Jane's in 1984. after a rocket explosion on 29 August 2019, speculated as being taken by a KH-11. In 1978, a young CIA employee named William Kampiles was accused of selling a KH-11 System Technical Manual describing design and operation to the Soviets. Kampiles was convicted of espionage and initially sentenced to 40 years in prison. which some believe was taken from the USA-224 satellite. In Seymour Hersh's book ''The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal & American Foreign Policy'' Ari Ben-Menashe says that Israel had stolen images from the KH-11 in order to target missiles at the Soviet Union. == KH-11 missions ==

Nine KH-11 satellites were launched between 1976 and 1990 aboard Titan-3D and Titan-34D launch vehicles, with one launch failure. For the following five satellite launches between 1992 and 2005, a Titan IV launch vehicle was used. The three most recent launches since 2011 were carried out by Delta IV Heavy launch vehicles. The KH-11 replaced the KH-9 film return satellite, among others, the last of which was lost in a liftoff explosion in 1986. All KH-11 satellites are in either of two standard planes in Sun-synchronous orbits. As shadows help to discern ground features, satellites in a standard plane east of a noon/midnight orbit observe the ground at local afternoon hours, while satellites in a western plane observe the ground at local morning hours. KH-11 satellites require periodic reboosts to counter atmospheric drag, or to adjust their ground track to surveillance requirements. Based on data collected by amateur observers, the following orbital characteristics of OPS 5705 were calculated by amateur skywatcher Ted Molczan. On 4 September 2010, amateur astrophotographer Ralf Vandebergh took some pictures of a KH-11 (USA-129) satellite from the ground. The pictures, despite being taken with a aperture telescope from a range of , show major details such as dishes and solar panels, as well as some elements whose function is not known. == Cost ==

Estimated unit costs, including launch and in dollars, range from tobillion (inflation adjusted tobillion in ). In , after the launch of USA-224, DNRO Bruce Carlson announced that the procurement cost for the satellite had been billion under the initial budget estimate, which would put it at about billion (inflation adjusted billion in ). == Image gallery ==

File:KH-BOMBER-IMAGE.jpg|A KH-11 Block 1 image of a Xian H-6 jet bomber operated by China. File:KH-11-best-SHIPYARD.jpg|The 2nd KH-11 Block 1 image of the construction of a Kiev-class aircraft carrier leaked to ''Jane's'' in 1984. File:SP38G5.jpg|A U.S. reconnaissance satellite image of the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory, attributed to KH-11 Block 3. File:Zhawar Kili Al-Badr Camp.jpg|A KH-11 Block 2 image of the Zhawar Kili camp in Afghanistan. == See also ==