Culture in the Anuradhapura kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of
buffalo and cattle, was uncommon. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded . Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing
paddy fields. Dairy products formed an important part of people's diets while
Pali and
Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from the cow: milk,
curd,
buttermilk,
ghee and butter. Bullocks and
bullock carts were also used for transport. Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes,
mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced on a large scale for the military. A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the
Lovamahapaya, which had been roofed entirely with copper. Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below the reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported the maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production. A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground,
shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall, a
perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir. Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland. Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period. Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign. Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for the use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters.
Religion , dated to the 8th century, found in the eastern coast of Sri Lanka Before the adoption of Buddhism by the royalty, there was no single organized religion or proper state religion but a wide variety of different belief systems were practiced some of which received royal patronage. These include worship of yakśas and yakśanis (female yakśas),
Nāgās,
ancestor worship, the
worship of gods, the
worship of trees,
Brahmanism,
Nigaṇthas,
Śaivisam, various ascetic groups such as Paribbrājakas,
Ᾱjīvakas and forms of early
Buddhism. Known yakśas that received royal patronage during the reign of King Pandukabhaya include Chitrarāja, Kālavēla and yakśani Valavāmukhī. Named gods to include
Sumana and
Upulvan while goddess named pachchimarājinī meaning “western queen” is also mentioned. Buddhism while not prevalent was brought by traders from India who built places of worship.
Brahmanism was prevalent among the ruling elite until the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of
Devanampiya Tissa. It spread rapidly throughout the country under his patronage becoming the official religion of the kingdom. Despite this status, the tolerance of Buddhist society ensured the survival of
Hinduism with only a minor loss of influence. After this, the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana.
Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to the country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established after
Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after the
Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism. Rulers sponsored
Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of
Mahayana beliefs. Rulers such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V (914–923) and Mahinda IV (956–972) promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha. A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and the authority of kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine. was constructed in the Anuradhapura kingdom era. Followers of
Hinduism were also present to some extent during the Anuradhapura kingdom. There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the 2nd century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as
Mahatittha and
Gokanna were followers of
Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom, large Hindu temples such as the
Konesvaram temple had been constructed. Historical sources indicate that there were also
Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba. A community of Christians are believed to have migrated and settled in the Kingdom likely introduced by Saint
Thomas the Apostle in AD 52-72. Most Christians at that time were either St.Thomas Christians or
Nestorian Christians. In 1912, the discovery of the
Anuradhapura cross indicated a possibility of a strong Christian population during the Anuradhapura period. There was also a presence of Muslim Traders from Arabia and Persia.
Literature From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the
Brāhmī script. This gradually developed into the modern
Sinhala script, but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier. The oldest Sinhala literature is found at
Sigiriya. Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom are found among the graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya. The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries. Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them,
Siyabaslakara, was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on the
Sanskrit Kavyadarsha.
Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the
Pali Dhammapadatthakatha, providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is
Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda, a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period. During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali
Tripitaka was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries on Buddhism, known as
Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama (406–428). Pali chronicles such as
Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country.
Art The Sigiriya Frescoes found at
Sigiriya,
Sri Lanka were painted during the reign of
King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are
apsaras (celestial nymphs), others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear some similarity to the
paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art. Paintings from a cave at
Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of the art of the Anuradhapura kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that the walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of
stupas and
vahalkadas were also painted. Statue making, most noticeably
statues of the Buddha, was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during the Anuradhapura kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD. Standard postures such as
Abhaya Mudra,
Dhyana Mudra,
Vitarka Mudra and
Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues. The
Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan art, shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, and is sculpted from
dolomitic marble and is datable to the 4th century. The
Toluvila statue is similar to this, and dates to the later stages of the Anuradhapura kingdom. Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period include the ones at
Avukana,
Maligavila and
Buduruvagala. The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country, standing at . All these statues are carved out of rock. The carvings at
Isurumuniya are some of the best examples of the
stone carving art of the Anuradhapura kingdom. Skill in arts was a respected and valued trait during this period and artists were well rewarded by the rulers. The Mahavamsa records that
Jettha Tissa II (328–337) was himself skilled in stone and
ivory carving. ==Architecture and engineering==