,
Sorony & Co., 1857
Pre-European contact Evidence of the settlement in what is today considered Kumeyaay territory may go back twelve millennia. Circa 7000 B.C. marked the emergence of two cultural traditions: the California Coast and Valley tradition and the Desert tradition. The Kumeyaay had land along the Pacific Ocean from present
Oceanside, California, in the north to south of
Ensenada, Mexico, and extending east to the
Colorado River. The
Cuyamaca complex, a late
Holocene complex in
San Diego County is related to the Kumeyaay peoples. One view holds that historic 'Iipai-Tiipai emerged around one millennium ago, though a "proto-'Iipai-Tiipai culture" had been established by about 5000 B.C. Another view suggests that the "nucleus of later Tipai-Ipai groups" came together around A.D. 1000. The Kumeyaay themselves traditionally hold that they have lived in San Diego since 10,000 B.C. At the time of European contact, Kumeyaay comprised several autonomous bands with thirty patrilineal clans.
Spanish exploration and colonization The first European to visit the region was
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. He had initially met with the Kumeyaay, but this did not lead to any colonial settlement.
Sebastián Vizcaíno also visited in 1602 and met with a band of Kumeyaay during the feast of
San Diego de Alcalá, thus giving the region of San Diego its name; however, this also did not lead to colonial settlement. in yellow.
Missionization period In 1769, the
Portolá expedition anchored in San Diego Bay and, once on land, traveled to the Kumeyaay village of
Cosoy (Kosa'aay) to recover and resupply. After their recovery, the Spanish established a
presidio over the village and the
Misión San Diego de Alcalá, incorporating the village into the settlement of San Diego. In 1769, under the Spanish Mission system, bands living near Misión San Diego de Alcalá (overlooking the San Diego River, in present-day Mission Valley), were called Diegueños; later bands, living near
Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, were called the Luiseño. The Spaniards brought with them new, non-native, invasive flora and domestic animals, which brought about some level of degradation to local ecology. This included grazing and foraging livestock animals such as pigs, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, donkeys, and various birds, like chickens, pheasants and ducks; the latter dirtying local water sources considerably. After years of sexual assaults from the Spanish soldiers in the Presidio, and physical torture of
Mission Indians using metal-tipped whips (by Mission staff), the Tiipay-Kumeyaay villages led a revolt against the Spanish, burning down Mission San Diego and killing Father
Luis Jayme along with two others. Missionaries and church leaders “apologized” and forgave the Kumeyaay, rebuilding their mission closer to the Kumeyaay village of Nipaquay or
Nipawai. Ultimately, the Spanish solidified their control over the area until the end of the mission era.
Colorado River conflict In the east, the Kamia-Kumeyaay were engaged in an armed regional conflict in the
Colorado River region against a coalition of
Yuman speaking tribes east of the Colorado River and the
Cahuilla led by the
Maricopa. The Kumeyaay aligned with
Quechan-led coalition, along with the
Mohave,
Yavapai,
Chemehuevi, and other smaller groups on the Colorado River. The Spanish mediated peace talks between the two warring factions in the mid-1770s, largely siding with the Quechan-aligned alliance. However, increased tensions between the Spanish and the Quechan led to resumed conflict in 1781, but with the Spanish being denied overland access to Alta California and siding with the Maricopa-aligned coalition. The Spanish would then refocus their attention westwards to secure their maritime access to Alta California on 'Iipay-Tiipay-Kumeyaay lands.
Early Mexican rancho era First Mexican Empire and First Mexican Republic period The
Mexican Empire assumed ownership of Kumeyaay lands after defeating Spain in the
Mexican War of Independence in 1821. The following year, Mexican troops confiscated all coastal lands from the Kumeyaay in 1822, granting much of the land to Mexican settlers, who became known as
Californios, to develop the land for agriculture, beginning the California rancho era. Kumeyaay fell victim to smallpox and malaria epidemics in 1827 and 1832, reducing their population. Various disputes culminated to a skirmish between the Kumeyaay and Mexican soldiers stationed in San Diego in 1826, killing 26 Kumeyaay. In retaliation, the Kamia-Kumeyaay attacked
Fort Romualdo Pacheco on April 26 with the support of the Quechan, resulting in three dead Mexican soldiers and a fort that would never return to service. After decades of debates and delays, the missions in
Alta California were secularized in 1833, and Ipai and Tipais lost their lands; band members had to choose between becoming
serfs, trespassers, rebels, or fugitives. This increased tensions between the Kumeyaay and the Mexican settlers as the economic instability threatened the security of Mexican and American merchants transiting through the area.
Centralist Republic of Mexico period Under territorial governor
José Figueroa, some of the Kumeyaay from Mission San Diego were allowed to resettle and establish San Pasqual pueblo in 1835, who would later become the
San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians. The Kumeyaay pueblo fought against hostile bands and protected Mexican settlers, with a decisive victory over an anti-Christian uprising and capturing its leader, Claudio. With conditions worsening, the Kumeyaay led an attack on
Rancho Tecate in 1836, forcing the alcalde of San Diego to send an expedition to suppress the Kumeyaay, but returned unsuccessfully. Because of the failed venture, Mexico failed to adequately suppress talk of Californian secession from American settlers in northern Alta California.
Mexican-American War During the Mexican–American War, the Kumeyaay were initially neutral. The Kumeyaay of the San Pasqual pueblo were evacuated as the Americans approached the town. The Mexicans and the
Californios were victorious over the Americans at the
Battle of San Pasqual. A Kumeyaay leader, Panto, called on the Mexicans to cease hostilities with the Americans so that the Kumeyaay could tend to the wounded Americans, to which provided Panto and the San Pasqual Kumeyaay resupplied the Americans and helped ensure the American capture of the
Pueblo de Los Ángeles and San Diego. However, not all Kumeyaay bands fought on the same side of the Yuma war; the San Pasqual Band of Kumeyaay fought against the
Quechan campaign to attack San Diego and defeated the Quechan in the San Pasqual Valley. The Kumeyaay withdrew from the war after the capitulation of the Cahuilla to the US and the failed attempt to capture Fort Yuma. Compared to other California tribes, the Kumeyaay did not face the same magnitude of destruction and exploitation under the
California genocide. This was due to the strategic positioning of the Kumeyaay and the lack of gold in the mountains. Additionally, Mexican officials in
Baja California Territory threatened to intervene in the conflict if they committed any atrocities on tribes along the border, due to a mix of Mexican sympathies towards the Native Californians and a fear of refugees coming across the border.
Establishment of Kumeyaay reservations in the U.S. On January 7, 1852, representatives of a number of Kumeyaay clans, including Panto, met with Commissioner
Oliver M. Wozencraft and negotiated the Treaty of Santa Ysabel. The agreement was part of the
"18 Treaties" of California, negotiated to protect Indian land rights. After the 18 Treaties were completed, the documents were sent to the United States Senate for approval. Under pressure from white settlers and the California Senate delegation, the treaties were all rejected. Some Kumeyaay chose not to establish a reservation inland and sought work in San Diego, many of whom migrated to the Kumeyaay village in what is now
Balboa Park led by the Florida Canyon Kumeyaay Band. The village experienced growth after receiving immigrants from other Kumeyaay bands as well as from other
Indigenous Californian and Bajeno tribes, who sought work in the city, transforming the village into a neighborhood integrated into the city fabric. The village was then demolished in the early 1900s in preparation for the 1915
Panama–California Exposition, displacing the residents of the village. In 1932, the
Coapan Kumeyaay living and farming on the San Diego River were removed to make way for
El Capitan Dam and
El Capitan Reservoir and relocated their inhabitants at the
Barona Reservation and the
Viejas Reservation, further cutting down the agricultural capacity of the Kumeyaay reservations.
Contemporary era Kumeyaay-American economy and casino industry Kumeyaay people supported themselves by farming and agricultural wage labor; however, a 20-year drought in the mid-20th century crippled the region's dry farming economy. For their common welfare, several reservations in the US formed the non-profit Kumeyaay, Inc. Cuts in Native American welfare programs under the Reagan and Bush Sr. administrations forced the reservation to find other means of income and capitalize on industries not possible off-reservation. In 1982, the Barona Band won its case in
Barona Group of the Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians v. Duffy (1982) to operate high-stakes bingo games, leading to the expansion of many Kumeyaay bingo operators into the casino industry. This helped establish Las Vegas-style gaming operations in the reservations in the region, evaporating reservation unemployment and poverty in a short time. In total, the Kumeyaay operate six casinos: Barona Valley Ranch Resort and Casino, Sycuan Resort and Casino, Viejas Casino & Resort, Valley View Casino and Hotel, Golden Acorn Casino and Travel Center, and Jamul Casino. This San Diego County Board of Supervisors repealed these policies in May 2021. The relative success of gaming operations on many reservations has allowed them to buy naming rights of infrastructure around the San Diego region, such as the
Sycuan Green Line of the
San Diego Trolley and the
SDSU Viejas Arena. Some reservations have also diversified their economic profile such as
Campo Reservation-based Muht Hei inc which oversees the reservation's wind farm or
Sycuan Band's acquisition of the
U.S. Grant Hotel. Additionally, Sycuan also became the first Native American tribe to own part of a professional soccer franchise by becoming the co-owner of
San Diego FC, a
Major League Soccer expansion team, and the second to have an ownership stake in any professional sports team.
Kumeyaay-Mexican economy and the wine tourism industry On the Mexican side of the border, Kumeyaay communities manufacture traditional craftwork to sell on the American side of the border with partnering Kumeyaay souvenir gift shops and casinos. Many Kumeyaay there have moved into urban areas to seek better employment opportunities compared to their agrarian employment on the communities. The depopulation of their villages has allowed neighboring non-Native Ejidos to encroach on their lands. The Kumeyaay communities on the Mexican side of the border have largely retained their traditional heritage. Some villages faced water shortages, making it difficult to continue agricultural operation, which they portray in their film
Kumeyaay Land. This led many communities to enter wine-tasting and tourism industries in the Guadalupe Valley. Many bands began launching wine tours and festivals to attract tourists and foreign visitors from southern California and cruise passengers stopping at the
Port of Ensenada. ==Society==