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Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

Bergen-Belsen, or Belsen, was a Nazi concentration camp in what is today Lower Saxony in northern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle. Originally established as a prisoner of war camp, in 1943, parts of it became a concentration camp. Initially this was an "exchange camp", where Jewish hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas. The camp was later expanded to hold Jews from other concentration camps.

Operation
Prisoner of war camp In 1935, the Wehrmacht began to build a large military complex close to the village of Belsen, a part of the town of Bergen, in what was then the Province of Hanover. In June 1940, Belgian and French POWs were housed in the former Bergen-Belsen construction workers' camp. This installation was significantly expanded from June 1941, once Germany prepared to invade the Soviet Union, becoming an independent camp known as Stalag XI-C (311). It was intended to hold up to 20,000 Soviet POWs and was one of three such camps in the area. The others were at Oerbke (Stalag XI-D (321)) and Wietzendorf (Stalag X-D (310)). By the end of March 1942, some 41,000 Soviet POWs had died in these three camps from starvation, exhaustion, and disease. By the end of the war, the total number of dead had increased to 50,000. Having initially been designated a Zivilinterniertenlager ("civilian internment camp"), in June 1943 it was redesignated Aufenthaltslager ("holding camp"), since the Geneva Conventions stipulated that the former type of facility must be open to inspection by international committees. This "holding camp" or "exchange camp" was for Jews who were intended to be exchanged for German civilians interned in other countries, or for hard currency. The SS divided this camp into subsections for individual groups (the "Hungarian camp", the "special camp" for Polish Jews, the "neutrals camp" for citizens of neutral countries and the "Star camp" for Dutch Jews). Between the summer of 1943 and December 1944 at least 14,600 Jews, including 2,750 minors, were transported to the Bergen-Belsen "holding" or exchange camp. In August 1944, a new section was created, and this became the so-called "women's camp". By November 1944 this camp received around 9,000 women and young girls. Most of those who were able to work stayed only for a short while and were then sent on to other concentration camps or slave-labour camps. The first women interned there were Poles, arrested after the failed Warsaw Uprising. Others were Jewish women from Poland or Hungary, transferred from Auschwitz. More prisoners In December 1944, SS-Hauptsturmführer Josef Kramer, previously at Auschwitz-Birkenau, became the new camp commandant, replacing SS-Hauptsturmführer , who had been in post since the spring of 1943. Before that, the number of prisoners at Belsen had been much smaller. In July 1944, there were 7,300; by December 1944, the number had increased to 15,000; and by February 1945, it had risen to 22,000. Numbers then soared to around 60,000 by April 15, 1945. These were at regional armament works. Around 2,000 female concentration camp prisoners were forced to work there. Those who were too weak or sick to continue with their work were brought to Bergen-Belsen. and Czech painter and writer Josef Čapek (estimated to be in April 1945), who had coined the word robot, popularised by his brother Karel Čapek. The rate at which inmates died at Belsen accelerated notably after the mass transport of prisoners from other camps began in December 1944. From 1943 to the end of 1944 around 3,100 died. From January to mid-April 1945 this rose to around 35,000. Another 14,000 died after liberation between April 15 and the end of June 1945, in the Bergen-Belsen displaced persons camp under British authority. ==Liberation==
Liberation
stands amongst corpses in Mass Grave 3 When the British and Canadians advanced on Bergen-Belsen in 1945, the German army negotiated a truce and exclusion zone around the camp to prevent the spread of typhus. On April 11, 1945 Heinrich Himmler (the Reichsführer SS) agreed to have the camp handed over without a fight. SS guards ordered prisoners to bury some of the dead. The next day, Wehrmacht representatives approached the British, D Squadron of the Inns of Court Regiment, at the bridge at Winsen and were brought to VIII Corps. At around 1 a.m. on April 13, an agreement was signed, designating an area of around the camp as a neutral zone. Most of the SS were allowed to leave. Only a small number of SS men and women, including the camp commandant Kramer, remained to "uphold order inside the camp". The outside was guarded by Hungarian and regular German troops who were returned to the German front lines by the British shortly afterwards. Due to heavy fighting near Winsen and Walle, the British were unable to reach Bergen-Belsen on April 14, as originally planned. The camp was liberated on the afternoon of April 15, 1945. The first two to reach the camp were a British Special Air Service officer, Lieutenant John Randall, and his jeep driver, who were on a reconnaissance mission and discovered the camp by chance. American soldiers attached to the British forces also helped liberate the camp. When British and Canadian troops finally entered they found over 13,000 unburied bodies and (including the satellite camps) around 60,000 inmates, most acutely sick and starving. The prisoners had been without food or water for days before the Allied arrival, partially due to Allied bombing. Immediately before and after liberation, prisoners were dying at around 500 per day, mostly from typhus. The scenes that greeted British troops were described by the BBC's Richard Dimbleby, who accompanied them: Initially lacking sufficient manpower, the British allowed the Hungarians to remain in charge and only commandant Kramer was arrested. Subsequently, SS and Hungarian guards shot and killed some of the starving prisoners who were trying to get their hands on food supplies from the store houses. On April 20, four German fighter planes attacked the camp, damaging the water supply and killing three British medical orderlies. The British forced the former SS camp personnel to help bury the thousands of dead bodies in mass graves. Within two months, 17 staff members had died of typhus due to being forced to handle the bodies with no protection. Another committed suicide, and three others were shot and killed by British soldiers after trying to escape. Some civil servants from Celle and Landkreis Celle were brought to Belsen and confronted with the crimes committed on their doorstep. As the concentration camp ceased to exist at this point, the name Belsen after this time refers to events at the Bergen-Belsen DP camp. who were later credited with significantly reducing the death rate amongst prisoners. A research team led by Janet Vaughan was dispatched by the Medical Research Council to test the effectiveness of various feeding regimes. The British troops and medical staff tried these diets to feed the prisoners, in this order: • Bully beef from Army rations. Most of the prisoners' digestive systems were in too weak a state from long-term starvation to handle such food. • Skimmed milk. The result was a bit better, but still insufficient for recovery. • Bengal Famine Mixture. This is a rice-and-sugar-based mixture which had achieved good results after the Bengal famine of 1943, but it proved less suitable to Europeans than to Bengalis because of the differences in the food to which they were accustomed. ==Aftermath==
Aftermath
Legal prosecution Many of the former SS staff who survived the typhus epidemic were tried by the British military at the Belsen trial. Over the period in which Bergen-Belsen operated as a concentration camp, at least 480 people had worked as guards or members of the commandant's staff, including around 45 women. From September 17 to November 17, 1945, 45 of those were tried by a military tribunal in Lüneburg. They included former commandant Josef Kramer, 16 other SS male members, 16 female SS guards and 12 former kapos (one of whom became ill during the trial). Among them were Irma Grese, Elisabeth Volkenrath, Hertha Ehlert, , Johanna Bormann and Fritz Klein. Many of the defendants were not just charged with crimes committed at Belsen but also earlier ones at Auschwitz. Their activities at other concentration camps such as Mittelbau-Dora, Ravensbrück, Neuengamme, the Gross Rosen subcamps at Neusalz and Langenleuba, and the Mittelbau-Dora subcamp at Gross Werther were not subject of the trial. It was based on British military law and the charges were thus limited to war crimes. No German soldier was ever put on trial for crimes committed against the inmates of the POW camps at Bergen-Belsen, although some were tried for participating in death marches headed towards Bergen-Belsen and in the region around it, A first wooden memorial was built by Jewish DPs in September 1945, followed by one made in stone, dedicated on the first anniversary of the liberation in 1946. On November 2, 1945, a large wooden cross was dedicated as a memorial to the murdered Polish prisoners. In addition, by the end of 1945, the Soviets had built a memorial at the entrance to the POW cemetery. A memorial to the Italian POWs followed in 1950, but was removed when the bodies were reinterred in a Hamburg cemetery. The British military authorities ordered the construction of a permanent memorial in September 1945 after having been lambasted by the press for the desolate state of the camp. The camp was hastily included in Ronald Reagan's itinerary when he visited West Germany after a controversy about a visit to a cemetery where the interred included members of the Waffen SS (see Bitburg controversy). Shortly before Reagan's visit on May 5, there had been a large memorial event on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the camp's liberation, which had been attended by German president Richard von Weizsäcker and chancellor Helmut Kohl. On April 15, 2005, there was a ceremony, commemorating the 60th anniversary of the liberation and many ex-prisoners and ex-liberating troops attended. In October 2007, the redesigned memorial site was opened, including a large new Documentation Centre and permanent exhibition on the edge of the newly redefined camp, whose structure and layout can now be traced. Since 2009, the memorial has been receiving funding from the Federal government on an ongoing basis. The site is open to the public and includes monuments to the dead, including a successor to the wooden cross of 1945, some individual memorial stones and a "House of Silence" for reflection. In addition to the Jewish, Polish and Dutch national memorials, a memorial to eight Turkish citizens who were killed at Belsen was dedicated in December 2012. ==Personal accounts==
Personal accounts
• The British comedian Michael Bentine, who took part in the liberation of the camp, wrote this on his encounter with Belsen: Millions of words have been written about these horror camps, many of them by inmates of those unbelievable places. I've tried, without success, to describe it from my own point of view, but the words won't come. To me Belsen was the ultimate blasphemy. • Memories of Anne Frank, a book written by Alison Leslie Gold on the recollections of Hannah Goslar, a friend of Anne FrankMervin Willett Gonin DSO wrote about the immediate aftermath to the liberation of Bergen-Belsen in his diary. • Leslie Hardman, Rabbi and British Army Chaplain, was the first Jewish chaplain to enter the camp, two days after its liberation, and published his account in the collective book Belsen in History and Memory. • In ''Bergen-Belsen 1945: A Medical Student's Journal'', volunteer Michael Hargrave gives his first-hand testimony of working at the displaced persons camp after liberation. • Anita Lasker-Wallfisch describes life in Belsen, its liberation and her stay at the displaced persons camp in her autobiography Inherit the Truth. • Shaul Ladany, who was in the camp as an 8-year-old and later survived the Munich Massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics recalled: I saw my father beaten by the SS, and I lost most of my family there... A ransom deal that the Americans attempted saved 2,000 Jews and I was one. I actually went into the gas chamber, but was reprieved. God knows why. • In his book From Belsen to Buckingham Palace Paul Oppenheimer tells of the events leading up to the internment of his whole family at the camp and their incarceration there between February 1944 and April 1945, when he was aged 14–15. • Abel Herzberg wrote the diary Between Two Streams () during his internment in Bergen-Belsen • British servicemen Denis Norden and Eric Sykes, who later became popular comedians, stumbled upon the camp in 1945 shortly after liberation; "Appalled, aghast, repelled – it is difficult to find words to express how we felt as we looked upon the degradation of some of the inmates not yet repatriated," Sykes later wrote. "They squatted in their thin, striped uniforms, unmoving bony structures who could have been anywhere between 30 and 60 years old, staring ahead with dead, hopeless eyes and incapable of feeling any relief at their deliverance." • A number of British artists depicted the aftermath of the liberation of the camp. These included Eric Taylor, Leslie Cole, Doris Zinkeisen, Mary Kessell and Edgar Ainsworth. • In his 2011 autobiography I Was a Boy in Belsen, Holocaust survivor Tomi Reichental recounts his experiences as a prisoner in the Bergen- Belsen concentration camp. • In the Dead Years: Holocaust Memoirs (), published by Amsterdam Publishers, survivor Joseph Schupack (1922-1989) tells about his last camp, Bergen-Belsen (pp. 173–174): • And the Month Was May: A Memoir () by Lilian Berliner traces the life of Berliner, from her childhood in Hungary, to the concentration camps of Auschwitz and Bergen Belsen, to her eventual liberation and resettlement in New York. After a day's journey, we arrived at Bergen-Belsen. This concentration camp was hopelessly overcrowded and we were not accepted. The right hand no longer knew what the left hand was doing, so we were sent to an adjoining Wehrmacht compound. As the soldiers of the Wehrmacht marched out, we moved in. The confusion was unbelievable; this time it was disorder with German perfection. We were moved into clean barracks, equipped for human beings with excellent bathrooms and clean beds stacked three on top of each other. After all we had experienced in the preceding year, this was sheer luxury. There was no mention of the usual camp rituals, no roll calls and no work, but also no food. • CMK Parsons, a British Army chaplain and great-grandfather of British artist Tom Marshall photographed his time at the camp, including the burning of the huts. His photos were published in 2015. • Lieutenant Colonel Mervin Willett Gonin DSO It was shortly after the British Red Cross arrived, though it may have no connection, that a very large quantity of lipstick arrived. This was not at all what we men wanted, we were screaming for hundreds and thousands of other things and I don't know who asked for lipstick. I wish so much that I could discover who did it, it was the action of genius, sheer unadulterated brilliance. I believe nothing did more for those internees than the lipstick. Women lay in bed with no sheets and no nightie but with scarlet red lips, you saw them wandering about with nothing but a blanket over their shoulders, but with scarlet red lips. I saw a woman dead on the post mortem table and clutched in her hand was a piece of lipstick. At last someone had done something to make them individuals again, they were someone, no longer merely the number tattooed on the arm. At last they could take an interest in their appearance. That lipstick started to give them back their humanity. • Belsen Uncovered by Derrick Sington (1946) The twentieth century has so far produced no more terrifying example of collective human wickedness than the Belsen Concentration Camp, a black spot which it fell to the lot of the British Army to occupy. This book is the personal story of the first British officer to enter the camp on its liberation and the last to leave, after a stay of five months. The author and two of his N.C.O.'s between them spoke five languages, so they had unrivalled opportunities for discovering what the inmates, men, women and children, experienced and felt. The evil which produced the concentration camps is fully exposed, and here too will be found a record of how the psychological and medical problems were tackled, as well as such complicated matters as supplies, welfare and rehabilitation. • Liberating Belsen Concentration Camp: A Personal Account by Leonard Berney (former) Lt-Colonel Leonard Berney R.A. T.D. (2015) But what should you do when faced with 60,000 dead, sick and dying people? We were in the army to fight a war and to beat the enemy. We were good at that, having been in combat for the last ten months, but none of us had any experience of dealing with the situation in Belsen and we were all more or less traumatized by the sights we had seen. I myself, although a 'senior officer', had turned 25 years of age only a few days before. Most of the men sent to deal with that human disaster were in their late teens or early twenties, even younger than I was. What we suddenly found ourselves faced with was beyond anyone's comprehension ==Media==
Media
The Relief of Belsen (2007 film) • Frontline: "Memory of the Camps" (May 7, 1985, Season 3, Episode 18), is a 56-minute television documentary that addresses Bergen-Belsen and other Nazi concentration camps • Memorandum (1965 film) • Night Will Fall is a 2014 documentary film that includes video footage shot by British armed forces upon their liberation of Bergen-Belsen • A protagonist in the novel The Lüneburg Variation by Paolo Maurensig describes the deprivations he suffered at Bergen-Belsen, "...only then did I understand that we'd been playing for human lives, lives that in Bergen-Belsen were worth less than a pfennig, less than a handful of dried beans." • What They Found is a 2025 television documentary film directed by Sam Mendes for BBC Two ==Notable inmates==
Notable inmates
This list contains some of the notable people who were imprisoned in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. With the exception of those marked as survivors, they all died there. • Julius Adler – a German Communist politician • Eduard Alexander – a German Communist politician • Alex Aronson (survived) – a Dutch aid worker executed in Ba'athist Iraq • Kalmi Baruh – a Bosnian Jewish scholar in the field of Judeo-Spanish languageHélène Berr – a French woman of Jewish ancestry who documented her life in a diary during the time of Nazi occupation of France • Thierry de Briey – a Belgian equestrian and Belgian Resistance member • Bruno Brodniewicz – the first Lagerälteste (camp elder) of the Auschwitz concentration camp • Braulia Cánovas - (survived) Spanish Republican who fought in French Resistance as "Monique". • Josef Čapek – a Czech artist • Madeleine Dreyfus (survived) - a French resistance member • Amédée Dunois – a French lawyer, journalist and politician • – French city mayor, lawyer, scout leader and resistant • Ernst Flersheim – a German Jewish art collector • Anne and Margot Frank, who both died of typhus there in February or March 1945, shortly before the camp was liberated on April 15, 1945. • Marianne Franken – a Dutch painter • Hanneli Goslar (survived) – a friend of Anne Frank, spoke about memories of Frank after surviving Bergen-Belsen. • Oscar Ihlebæk – a Norwegian newspaper editor and resistance member • Mirjam Jacobson – a Dutch painter • Heinrich Jasper – a German politician • Johnny & Jones, actually Nol (Arnold Siméon) van Wesel and Max (Salomon Meyer) Kannewasser – a jazz duo • Józef Klukowski – a Polish sculptor • Suzanne Kohn – a French Jew born into one of France's most prominent Jewish families • Shaul Ladany (survived) – an Israeli Olympic athlete and survivor of the Munich massacreKarl Landauer – a German psychoanalyst • Rywka Lipszyc – a Polish-Jewish teenage girl who wrote a personal diary while in the Łódź GhettoAugustin Malroux – a French socialist politician and member of the French Resistance • Jean Maurice Paul Jules de Noailles – a member of the French ResistanceUri Orlev (survived) - a Polish-Israeli children's author • Gino Parin – an Italian painter of Jewish ancestry • Gisella Perl (survived) – a Hungarian doctor and author • Julius Philipp – a German-born metal trader • Yvonne Rudellat – an agent of the Special Operations ExecutiveZuzana Růžičková (survived) – a Czech harpsichordist • Felice Schragenheim – a Jewish resistance fighter • Benjamin Marius Telders – a professor of law at Leiden UniversityGeorges Valois – a French journalist and national syndicalist politician • Arthur Vanderpoorten – a Belgian liberal politician and minister • Gerardus van der Wel – a Dutch long-distance runnerJulius Wolff – a Dutch mathematician ==See also==
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