Antiquity Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt provides some of the earliest and most continuous archaeological and textual evidence for libation practices in the ancient world. Libation was a fundamental ritual practice in ancient Egyptian religion, involving the pouring of liquids as offerings to deities, sacred ancestors, the deceased, living persons who were ritually absent, and the natural environment. Archaeological evidence indicates that libation practices were already established in the Predynastic period, particularly during Naqada I and II (c. 4000–3300 BCE), prior to the widespread use of writing in Egypt. Libations typically consisted of water, beer, wine, milk, or oils and formed a core component of funerary and temple ritual throughout pharaonic history. In Egyptian religious thought, libations functioned to purify sacred space and to sustain the
ka, the vital essence of gods and humans, and are among the most frequently depicted ritual acts in Egyptian art, appearing in tombs, temples, and on offering equipment from the Early Dynastic period onward.
Ancient Sumer The
Sumerian afterlife was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground. This bleak domain was known as
Kur, where the souls were believed to eat nothing but dry
dust. Family members would offer a drink to the deceased by ritually pouring libations into the grave through a clay pipe.
Ancient Greece ,
Attic red-figure krater, 430–420 BCE) Libation (, , ) was a central and vital aspect of
ancient Greek religion, and one of the simplest and most common forms of religious practice. It is one of the basic religious acts that define piety in ancient Greece, dating back to the
Bronze Age and even
prehistoric Greece. Libations were a part of daily life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and evening, as well as to begin meals. A libation most often consisted of mixed wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, or milk. The typical form of libation,
, is the ritualized pouring of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour the liquid from an
oinochoē (wine jug) into a
phiale, a shallow bowl designed for the purpose. After wine was poured from the phiale, the remainder of the oinochoē's contents was drunk by the celebrant. A libation is poured any time wine is to be drunk, a practice that is recorded as early as the
Homeric epics. The etiquette of the
symposium required that when the first bowl
(krater) of wine was served, a libation was made to
Zeus and the
Olympian gods.
Heroes received a libation from the second krater served, and (, lit. "Zeus who Finishes") from the third, which was supposed to be the last. An alternative was to offer a libation from the first bowl to the
Agathos Daimon and from the third bowl to
Hermes. An individual at the symposium could also make an invocation of and libation to a god of his choice. Libation generally accompanied prayer. The Greeks stood when they prayed, either with their arms uplifted, or in the act of libation with the right arm extended to hold the phiale. pouring a libation from a
phiale onto the
omphalos, with his sister
Artemis attending; a
bucranium hangs above In conducting
animal sacrifice, wine is poured onto the offering as part of its ritual slaughter and preparation, and then afterwards onto the ash and flames. This scene is commonly depicted in
Greek art, which also often shows sacrificers or the gods themselves holding the
phiale. The Greek verb ''
(), "pour a libation", also "conclude a pact", derives from the Indo-European root , "make an offering, perform a rite, engage oneself by a ritual act". The noun is (
plural )
, "libation". In the middle voice, the verb means "enter into an agreement", in the sense that the gods are called to guarantee an action. Blood sacrifice was performed to begin a war; '' marked the conclusion of hostilities, and is often thus used in the sense of "armistice, treaty". The formula "We the
polis have made libation" was a declaration of peace or the "Truce of God", which was observed also when the various city-states came together for the
Panhellenic Games, the
Olympic Games, or the festivals of the
Eleusinian Mysteries: this form of libation is "bloodless, gentle, irrevocable, and final". Libations poured onto the earth are meant for the dead and for the
chthonic gods. In the Book of the Dead in the
Odyssey,
Odysseus digs an offering pit around which he pours in order honey, wine, and water. For the form of libation called ''
(, '', "that which is poured"; from Proto-Indo-European ), In rituals of caring for the dead at their tombs, libations would include milk and honey.
The Libation Bearers is the English title of the center
tragedy from the
Orestes Trilogy of
Aeschylus, in reference to the offerings
Electra brings to the tomb of her dead father
Agamemnon.
Sophocles gives one of the most detailed descriptions of libation in
Greek literature in
Oedipus at Colonus, performed as atonement in the
grove of the
Eumenides: First, water is fetched from a freshly flowing spring; cauldrons which stand in the sanctuary are garlanded with wool and filled with water and honey; turning towards the east, the sacrificer tips the vessels towards the west; the olive branches which he has been holding in his hand he now strews on the ground at the place where the earth has drunk in the libation; and with a silent prayer he departs, not looking back.
Hero of Alexandria described a mechanism for automating the process by using altar fires to force oil from the cups of two statues.
Ancient Rome , extending a
patera in a gesture of libation, 2nd-3rd century CE. In
ancient Roman religion, the libation was a religious act in the form of a liquid offering, most often unmixed wine and perfumed oil. The
Roman god Liber Pater ("Father
Liber"), later identified with the Greek
Dionysus or
Bacchus, was the divinity of
libamina, "libations", and
liba, sacrificial cakes drizzled with honey. In Roman art, the libation is shown performed at a
mensa (sacrificial meal table), or
tripod. It was the simplest form of
sacrifice, and could be a sufficient offering by itself. The introductory rite
() to an animal sacrifice included an incense and wine libation onto a burning altar. Both
emperors and divinities are frequently depicted, especially on coins, pouring libations. Scenes of libation commonly signify the quality of '''', religious duty or reverence. The libation was part of
Roman funeral rites, and may have been the only sacrificial offering at humble funerals. Libations were poured in rituals of caring for the dead (see and ), and some tombs were equipped with tubes through which the offerings could be directed to the underground dead. Milk was unusual as a libation at Rome, but was regularly offered to a few deities, particularly those of an archaic nature or those for whom it was a natural complement, such as , a
goddess of birth and childrearing who promoted the flow of breast milk, and Cunina, a
tutelary of the cradle. It was offered also to Mercurius Sobrius (the "sober"
Mercury), whose cult is well attested in
Roman Africa and may have been imported to the city of Rome by an African community.
Ancient Judaism Libations were part of ancient
Judaism and are mentioned in the
Bible: In
Isaiah 53:12,
Isaiah uses libation as a
metaphor when describing the end of the
Suffering Servant figure who "poured out his life unto death". Libations of wine were offered at
the Jerusalem temple, and a double libation of wine and water was offered during
Sukkot, possibly as a rain making ritual. Idolatrous libations were forbidden, along with the Torah's prohibitions on idolatrous sacrifice and worship generally.
Africa Libation was part of
ancient Egyptian society where it was a drink offering to honor and please the various divinities, sacred ancestors, humans present and humans who are alive but not physically present, as well as the environment. It is suggested that libation originated somewhere in the upper Nile Valley and spread out to other regions of Africa and the world. According to
Ayi Kwei Armah, "[t]his legend explains the rise of a propitiatory custom found everywhere on the African continent: libation, the pouring of alcohol or other drinks as offerings to ancestors and divinities." , Ivory Coast In
African cultures and
African traditional religions the ritual of pouring libation is an essential ceremonial tradition and a way of giving homage to the ancestors. Ancestors are not only respected in such cultures, but also invited to participate in all public functions (as are also the gods and God). A prayer is offered in the form of libations, calling the ancestors to attend. The ritual is generally performed by an elder. Although water may be used, the drink is typically some traditional wine (e.g.
palm wine), and the libation ritual is accompanied by an invitation (and invocation) to the ancestors, gods and God. In the Volta region of Ghana, water with a mixture of corn flour is also used to pour libation. Libation is also commonly recognized as the break within the famous performance of
Agbekor, a ritual dance performed in West African cultures. It is also poured during traditional marriage ceremony, when a child is born and funeral ceremony. Traditional Festivals like
Asafotu and
Homowo of the
Ga-Adangbe people of Ghana and Togo. Also during installment of kings, queens, and chiefs, libation is poured. As recently as the 1920s, it was a custom in
Lower Nubia for women to go to the graves of relatives every Friday and pour a libation of water into a red bowl at the head of the grave. For widows, it was also once a custom for them to pour a libation of milk on their husband's grave the second day after his death. Similarly, it has been
Coptic tradition for women to visit graves and make water libations, both in intervals during the first 40 days after a death, and during a few annual occasions, such as
Nayrouz.
Americas In the
Quechua and
Aymara cultures of the South American
Andes, it is common to pour a small amount of one's beverage on the ground before drinking as an offering to the
Pachamama, or Mother Earth. This especially holds true when drinking
Chicha, an alcoholic beverage unique to this part of the world. The libation ritual is commonly called
challa and is performed quite often, usually before meals and during celebrations. The sixteenth century writer
Bernardino de Sahagún records the Aztec ceremony associated with drinking
octli: Libation was done in this manner: when
octli was drunk, when they tasted the new
octli, when someone had just made
octli...he summoned people. He set it out in a vessel before the hearth, along with small cups for drinking. Before having anyone drink, he took up
octli with a cup and then poured it before the hearth; he poured the
octli in the four directions. And when he had poured the
octli then everyone drank it.
Asia Hinduism In
Hinduism libation rituals most often involve pouring the offered liquid over a
murti or sacred image. Many temple images receive libations from the priests daily. Libations are part of
Tarpan and also performed during
Pitru Paksha (Fortnight of the ancestors) following the
Bhadrapada month of the
Hindu calendar, (September–October). In India and Nepal, Lord Shiva (also Vishnu and other deities) is offered
abhisheka with water by devotees at many temples when they go visit the temple, and on special occasions elaborately with water, milk, yogurt, ghee, honey, and sugar.
Burmese Buddhism In
Burmese Buddhism, the water libation ceremony, called
yay zet cha (), which involves the ceremonial pouring of water from a vessel of water into a vase, drop by drop, concludes most Buddhist ceremonies, including donation celebrations,
shinbyu, and feasts. This ceremonial libation is done to share the accrued
merit with all other living beings in all 31 planes of existence. The ceremony has three primary prayers: the confession of faith, the pouring of water, and the sharing of merits. While the water is poured, a confession of faith, called the '''' (), is recited and led by the monks. Then, the merit is distributed by the donors (called
ahmya wei ) by thrice saying the following: Although the offering of water to Vasudhara may have pre-Buddhist roots, this ceremony is believed to have been started by King
Bimbisara, who poured the libation of water, to share his merit with his ancestors who had become
pretas. This ceremony is also practiced at the end of Thai and Laotian Buddhist rituals to transfer merit, where it is called
kruat nam (กรวดน้ำ) and
yaat nam respectively. File:MET 19 135 29.jpg|Nepalese ewer for water oblations, 19th century File:Clevelandart 1960.42.jpg|Bronze Chinese libation cup
(jue), late
Shang dynasty, ca. 1210 BCE File:China, Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Kangxi reign - Libation Cup - 1920.424 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|
Jade libation cup,
Qing dynasty, 1661–1722 CE File:Miki in Itsukushima Shrine 2.jpg|Sake offerings as
omiki at
Itsukushima Shrine, Japan, 2017
China The most traditional
Chinese ritual bronze vessel for libations, the
jue, has a large pouring lip, and may be regarded as a type of jug rather than a cup. In modern Chinese customs, rice wine or tea is poured in front of an altar or tombstone horizontally from right to left with both hands as an offering to gods and in honour of the deceased. The offering is usually placed on the altar for a while before being offered in libation. In more elaborate ceremonies honouring deities, the libation may be done over the burning paper offerings; whereas for the deceased, the wine is only poured onto the ground.
Japan Japanese libations leave the liquid offering on the altar in a suitable vessel, while other portions are drunk by the participants. In
Shinto, the practice of libation and the drink offered is called
Miki (神酒), lit. "The Liquor of the Gods". At a ceremony at a Shinto shrine, it is usually done with
sake, but at a household shrine, one may substitute fresh
water which can be changed every morning. It is served in a white porcelain or metal cup without any decoration. ikupasuy Among the
Ainu, libations are offered by means of the
ikupasuy, a carved wooden implement with a "tongue", the pointed end from which
millet beer or
sake is dripped upon the venerated object.
Siberian shamanism Shamanism among Siberian peoples exhibits the great diversity characteristic of
shamanism in general. Among several peoples near the
Altai Mountains, the new drum of a shaman must go through a special ritual. This is regarded as "enlivening the drum": the tree and the deer who gave their wood and skin for the new drum narrate their whole lives and promise to the shaman that they will serve him. The ritual itself is a libation: beer is poured onto the skin and wood of the drum, and these materials "come to life" and speak with the voice of the shaman in the name of the tree and the deer. Among the
Tubalar, moreover,
the shaman imitates the voice of the animal, and its behaviour as well. == Modern customs ==