Louis IX of France

Louis was born on 25 April 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of then-Prince Louis "the Lion" (later Louis VIII of France) and Blanche of Castile, during the reign of his paternal grandfather, Philip II "Augustus" of France, and was baptized in Poissy in La Collégiale Notre-Dame church. His maternal grandfather was King Alfonso VIII of Castile. Tutors of Blanche's choosing taught him Latin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government. His father succeeded to the throne upon Philip II's death in 1223, when then-Prince Louis was nine years old. == Minority (1226–1234) ==

Louis was 12 years old when his father died on 8 November 1226. His coronation as king took place on 29 November 1226 at Reims Cathedral, officiated by the bishop of Soissons. Louis's mother, Queen Blanche, ruled France as regent during his minority. Louis's mother instilled in him her devout Christianity. She is once recorded to have said: Louis's younger brother Charles I of Sicily (1227–85) was created count of Anjou, thus founding the Capetian Angevin dynasty. In 1229, when Louis was 15, his mother ended the Albigensian Crusade by signing an agreement with Raymond VII of Toulouse. Raymond VI of Toulouse had been suspected of ordering the assassination of Pierre de Castelnau, a Catholic preacher who attempted to convert the Cathars. On 27 May 1234, Louis married Margaret of Provence (1221–1295); she was crowned queen in Sens Cathedral the next day. Margaret was the sister of Eleanor of Provence, who later married Henry III of England. The new Queen Margaret's religious zeal made her a well-suited partner for the king, and they are attested to have got on well, enjoying riding together, reading, and listening to music. His closeness to Margaret aroused jealousy in his mother, who tried to keep the couple apart as much as she could. While his contemporaries viewed Louis's reign as co-rule between him and his mother, historians generally believe Louis began ruling personally in 1234, with his mother then assuming a more advisory role. She continued to have a strong influence on the king until her death in 1252. == Louis as king ==

Arts with Louis IX at Cluny Louis's patronage of the arts inspired much innovation in Gothic art and architecture. The style of his court was influential throughout Europe, both because of artwork purchased from Parisian masters for export, and by the marriage of the king's daughters and other female relatives to foreigners. They became emissaries of Parisian models and styles elsewhere. Louis's personal chapel, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, which was known for its intricate stained-glass windows, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis is believed to have ordered the production of the Morgan Bible and the Arsenal Bible, both deluxe illuminated manuscripts. During the golden century of Saint Louis, the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. Saint Louis was regarded as "primus inter pares", first among equals, among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army and ruled the largest and wealthiest kingdom, the European centre of arts and intellectual thought at the time. The foundations for the notable college of theology, later known as the Sorbonne, were laid in Paris about the year 1257. Arbitration The prestige and respect felt by Europeans for King Louis IX were due more to the appeal of his personality than to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. His reputation for fairness and even saintliness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in quarrels among the rulers of Europe. Louis IX paid the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres to clear the debt. In 1230, the king forbade all forms of usury, defined at the time as any taking of interest and therefore covering most banking activities. Louis used these anti-usury laws to extract funds from Jewish and Lombard moneylenders, with the hopes that it would help pay for a future crusade. The edict against the Talmud was eventually overturned by Gregory IX's successor, Innocent IV. St. Louis installed a house of the Trinitarian Order at Fontainebleau, his chateau and estate near Paris. He chose Trinitarians as his chaplains and was accompanied by them on his crusades. In his spiritual testament he wrote, "My dearest son, you should permit yourself to be tormented by every kind of martyrdom before you would allow yourself to commit a mortal sin." The letter is estimated to have been written in 1267, three years before Louis's death. Legal reforms Louis IX's most enduring domestic achievements came through his comprehensive reform of the French legal system. He created mechanisms that allowed subjects to appeal judicial decisions directly to the monarch, establishing a precedent for royal courts as the ultimate arbiters of justice in the kingdom. One of his most significant legal innovations was the abolition of trials by ordeal and combat, practices that had determined guilt or innocence through physical tests rather than evidence. Louis was the second European monarch after Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor to outlaw trial by ordeal, and in its place, Louis introduced the groundbreaking concept of presumption of innocence in criminal proceedings, fundamentally altering how justice was administered throughout the kingdom. These reforms collectively established a more rational and equitable legal framework that would influence French jurisprudence for centuries. Prior to his departure on crusade in 1248, Louis had sent enquêteurs across the kingdom to receive complaints about royal injustice, investigate those claims, and provide restitutions to deserving petitioners. Based on the evidence of administrative corruption and malfeasance compiled in the enquêteurs' reports, as well as the disastrous failure of the crusade itself, in the last sixteen years of his reign Louis initiated a sweeping series of reforms. A 1261 inquest into the conduct of Mathieu de Beaune, bailli of Vermandois, illustrates Louis's commitment to accountability: testimonies from 247 witnesses were collected to investigate corruption allegations, showcasing the crown's rigorous oversight mechanisms and its mission to create a more transparent judiciary. Scholarship and learning The reign of Louis IX coincided with a remarkable intellectual flourishing in France, particularly in Paris, which emerged as Europe's pre-eminent center of learning during Louis's reign. Scholars like William of Auvergne played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape of Europe during his reign. William of Auvergne's monumental Magisterium divinale (1223–1240) attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine, particularly challenges posed by Arabic commentaries on Aristotle. He was greatly favored by the crown and also served as a member of the regency council that ruled France in absence of the king during the seventh crusade. Perhaps greatest of all the intellectual minds active in France during Louis's reign was the theologian Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's association with Paris represents one of the most fruitful collaborations between scholasticism and intellectual endeavor. Though Italian by birth, Aquinas conducted his most important work at the University of Paris, where he held the Dominican chair in theology twice (1256–1259 and 1269–1272). His Summa Theologica, widely considered to be the epitome of medieval scholastic theology, synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology in an unprecedented systematic framework at a time when Aristotle was just regaining popularity in Europe. Another major scholastic figure, the German Dominican Albertus Magnus, was also active at the University of Paris from 1245 to 1248. His experimental approach to natural sciences, exemplified by botanical studies and mineralogical investigations, prefigured later scientific methods while maintaining a theological framework. Louis IX's support for Dominican institutions facilitated Albertus's work, which helped transform Paris into the primary center for Aristotelian studies. == Personal reign (1235–1266) ==

Construction of the Sainte-Chapelle The construction of Sainte-Chapelle was inspired by earlier Carolingian royal chapels, most notably the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle (modern-day Aachen). Before embarking on this ambitious project, Louis had already built a royal chapel at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1238. This earlier, single-level chapel's plan would be adapted for Sainte-Chapelle, though on a much grander scale. The primary motivation for building Sainte-Chapelle was to create a suitable sanctuary for Louis IX's collection of precious Christian relics including the crown of thorns. The foundation of the Chapelle was laid in 1241 and construction proceeded rapidly into the decade. On April 26, 1248 the Saint-Chapelle was consecrated as a private royal chapel for King Louis IX. This papal directive built upon a century of crusading precedent, particularly the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221), which had similarly sought to leverage control over the Nile Delta to pressure Muslim powers in Syria and Palestine. Louis and his followers landed in Egypt on 4 or 5 June 1249 and began their campaign with the capture of the port of Damietta. This attack caused some disruption in the Muslim Ayyubid empire, especially as the current sultan, Al-Malik as-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, was on his deathbed. However, the march of Europeans from Damietta toward Cairo through the Nile River Delta went slowly. The seasonal rising of the Nile and the summer heat made it impossible for them to advance. and the surrender of the city of Damietta. Four years in the Kingdom of Jerusalem Upon his liberation from captivity in Egypt, Louis IX devoted four years to fortifying the Kingdom of Jerusalem, focusing his efforts in Acre, Caesarea, and Jaffa. He used his resources to aid the Crusaders in reconstructing their defenses and actively engaged in diplomatic endeavors with the Ayyubid dynasty. In the spring of 1254, Louis and his remaining forces made their return to France. Louis sent another representative, the Franciscan missionary and explorer William of Rubruck, to the Mongol court. Rubruck visited the Khagan Möngke () in Mongolia and spent several years there. In 1259, Berke, the leader of the Golden Horde, demanded Louis's submission. In contrast, Mongol emperors Möngke and Khubilai's brother, the Ilkhan Hulegu, sent a letter to the French king, soliciting his military aid; this letter, however, never reached France. Return to France Louis IX returned to France in 1254 after spending four years in the Holy Land following his release from captivity during the failed Seventh Crusade. He set out from Acre on April 24, 1254, and arrived back in France in July of that year. The kingdom had been ruled by a regency in his absence, headed by the king's mother Blanche of Castile until her death in November 1252. Jean de Joinville's narrative of the king's return home from crusade in July 1254 is marked by two fateful meetings. Upon disembarking at Hyères, forty miles east along the coast from Marseille, Louis and his entourage were met almost immediately by the abbot of Cluny, who presented him and the queen with two palfreys that Joinville estimated to be worth, by the standards of the first decade of the 1300s, five hundred livre tournois. The next day, the abbot returned to tell the king of his troubles, to which the king patiently and attentively listened. After the abbot's departure, Joinville posed to Louis whether the gift of the palfreys had made the king more favorable to the abbot's petition, and, when Louis replied in the affirmative, advised him that those men entrusted with administering the king's justice should be forbidden from accepting gifts, lest they "listen more willingly and with greater attention to those who gave them." While still at Hyères, the king heard of a renowned Franciscan named Hugues de Digne active in the area and, ever the enthusiast for sermons, requested that the friar attend the court so that Louis might hear him preach. Diplomatic relations and treaties After returning to France in 1254, Louis IX prioritized diplomatic settlements to resolve many longstanding territorial disputes and stabilize his kingdom's borders. In 1258, he concluded the Treaty of Corbeil with James I of Aragon. According to the terms of this treaty, Louis IX renounced ancient French claims of feudal overlordship over Catalonia (the Hispanic March), while James had to renounce all claims to several territories in southern France, including Languedoc, Provence, Toulouse, Quercy, and others, except for Montpellier and Carlat. Isabella, daughter of James I, was also betrothed to Philip, son of Louis IX securing peace with Aragon. In 1259, Louis concluded the Treaty of Paris with Henry III of England. Henry III formally renounced all claims to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou-territories lost by his predecessors. In return, Louis IX recognized Henry III as Duke of Aquitaine and his vassal for Guyenne and Gascony, with Henry retaining control over these regions but under French suzerainty. The Treaty of Paris had already positioned Louis as a respected mediator in European affairs, and in January 1264, Henry III formally requested Louis IX to arbitrate the dispute between the crown and the barons. Louis convened the Mise of Amiens, a judgement that annulled the Provisions of Oxford and sided decisively with Henry, rejecting the baronial reforms. This ruling emboldened Henry's position but also deepened the conflict, as the barons, led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, refused to accept the decision, which led to renewed warfare after 1264. Louis IX's diplomatic reach extended across Western Europe and even into the Near East and Central Asia, earning him a reputation as one of the foremost arbitrators of his age. The king maintained diplomatic relations with the Mongols even after returning to France and in 1260, as the Mongols under Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad and advanced into Syria, Louis maintained correspondence with Ilkhanate leaders, hoping to coordinate attacks against their mutual Mamluk adversaries. Frederick II also allegedly sent secret letters and envoys to Sultan As-Salih Ayyub of Egypt, warning him of Louis IX's impending crusade and offering to delay or disrupt the French king's campaign. King Louis IX enjoyed unparalleled prestige throughout Christendom and was respected even by his opponents as he was considered to be the 'Most Christian King' (rex Christianissimus). This title adopted by the French kings was later confirmed by the pope, while further papal concessions cemented France as the "eldest daughter of the church". The king's influence was rooted not in military dominance but in widespread respect for his fairness, personal integrity, and reputation as a Christian ruler. European monarchs and nobles frequently sought his judgment in disputes, viewing him as an impartial and principled mediator. == Later reign (1267–1270) ==

Eighth Crusade and death . Illuminated by Jean Fouquet, Grandes Chroniques de France (1455–1460). In a parliament held at Paris, 24 March 1267, Louis and his three sons "took the cross". On hearing the reports of the missionaries, Louis resolved to land at Tunis, and he ordered his younger brother, Charles of Anjou, to join him there. The crusaders, among whom was the English prince Edward Longshanks, landed at Carthage 17 July 1270, but disease broke out in the camp. Louis died at Tunis on 25 August 1270, during an epidemic of dysentery that swept through his army. According to European custom, his body was subjected to the process known as mos Teutonicus prior to most of his remains being returned to France. Louis was succeeded as King of France by his son, Philip III. Louis's younger brother, Charles I of Naples, preserved his heart and intestines, and conveyed them for burial in the Cathedral of Monreale near Palermo. '' Louis's bones were carried overland in a lengthy processional across Sicily, Italy, the Alps, and France, until they were interred in the royal necropolis at Saint-Denis in May 1271. Charles and Philip III later dispersed a number of relics to promote Louis's veneration. ==Issue==

• Blanche (12 July/4 December 1240 – 29 April 1244), died in infancy. • Isabella (2 March 1241 – 28 January 1271), married Theobald II of Navarre. • Louis (23 September 1243/24 February 1244 – 11 January/2 February 1260). Betrothed to Berengaria of Castile in Paris on 20 August 1255. • Philip III (1 May 1245 – 5 October 1285), married firstly to Isabella of Aragon in 1262 and secondly to Maria of Brabant in 1274. • John (1246/1247 – 10 March 1248), died in infancy. • John Tristan (8 April 1250 – 3 August 1270), Count of Valois, married Yolande II, Countess of Nevers. • Peter (1251 – 6/7 April 1284), Count of Perche and Alençon, married Joanne of Châtillon. • Blanche (early 1253 – 17 June 1320), married Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castile. • Margaret (early 1255 – July 1271), married John I, Duke of Brabant. • Robert (1256 – 7 February 1317), Count of Clermont, married Beatrice of Burgundy. The French crown devolved upon his male-line descendant, Henry IV (the first Bourbon king), when the legitimate male line of Philip III died out in 1589. • Agnes (1260 – 19/20 December 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy. Louis and Margaret's two children who died in infancy were first buried at the Cistercian abbey of Royaumont. In 1820 they were transferred and reinterred to Saint-Denis Basilica. ==Veneration as a saint==

Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French king to be declared a saint. Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. A similar order, the Sisters of St Louis, was founded in Juilly in 1842. He is honoured as co-patron of the Third Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of the Order. When he became king, over a hundred poor people were served meals in his house on ordinary days. Often the king served these guests himself. His acts of charity, coupled with his devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St. Francis, though it is unlikely that he ever actually joined the order. ==Things named after Saint Louis==

• The French royal Order of Saint Louis (1693–1790 and 1814–1830) Places Many countries in which French speakers and Catholicism were prevalent named places after King Louis: • San Luis Province in Argentina • San Luis Potosí in Mexico • Multiple locations in the United States • St. Louis, Missouri, named by French colonists • St. Louis County, Missouri • St. Louis County, Minnesota • San Luis Rey, Oceanside, California, named by the Franciscans who built one of the California missions there. • San Luis, Colorado • Multiple locations in France • Saint-Louis, New Caledonia • Multiple locations in Canada • The Philippines • San Luis, Aurora • San Luis, Batangas Buildings • France • Hôpital Saint-Louis, hospital in the 10th arrondissement of Paris • The Cathédrale Saint-Louis de Versailles in Versailles • United States • The Basilica of St. Louis, King of France, completed in 1834 in St. Louis, Missouri • The Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis, completed in 1914 in St. Louis, Missouri • The Cathedral-Basilica of Saint Louis, King of France (St. Louis Cathedral), completed in 1850s in New Orleans, Louisiana • The Saint Louis Roman Catholic Church and School in Clarksville, Maryland, established in 1855 and 1923, respectively. • Saint Louis Catholic Church and School in Fairfax County, Virginia. • The St. Louis King of France Catholic Church and School, in Metairie, Louisiana • Saint Louis Catholic High School, in Lake Charles, Louisiana • St. Louis the King Catholic Church, in Marquette, Michigan • St. Louis Catholic Church and School, in Memphis, Tennessee • Saint Louis King of France Catholic Church and School, in Austin, Texas • Saint Louis Catholic Church, in Waco, Texas • Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, Oceanside, California, founded 12 June 1798 • San Luis Rey Mission, Chamberino, New Mexico • St. Louis Roman Catholic Church in Buffalo, New York (Mother Church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Buffalo) • St. Louis Catholic Church and School, Castroville, Texas • The national church of France in Rome: San Luigi dei Francesi in Italian, or Saint Louis of France in English • The Cathedral of St Louis in Plovdiv, Bulgaria • The Cathedral of St Louis in Carthage, Tunisia, so named because Louis IX died at that approximate location in 1270 • The Church of St Louis in Moscow, Russia • India • Rue Saint Louis of Pondicherry • St. Louis Church, Dahisar West, Mumbai • The Convent of Saint Louis and Catholic High School in Carrickmacross, Ireland. • St-Louis-de-France church, in Toronto, Canada. == Notable portraits ==

, 1844 France • Saint Louis Mediating Between the King of England and His Barons by Georges Rouget, 1820 • Louis IX by Émile Signol, 1844 • The Glorification of Saint Louis by Alexandre Cabanel, 1853 • The Equestrian Statue of Louis IX, Paris, by Hippolyte Lefèbvre, which stands outside of the Basilica of the Sacred Heart at Montmartre. United States • A bas-relief of St. Louis is one of the carved portraits of historic lawmakers that adorn the chamber of the United States House of Representatives. • Saint Louis is also portrayed on a frieze depicting a timeline of important lawgivers throughout world history, on the North Wall of the Courtroom at the Supreme Court of the United States. • A statue of St. Louis by the sculptor John Donoghue stands on the roofline of the New York State Appellate Division Court at 27 Madison Avenue in New York City. • The Apotheosis of St. Louis is an equestrian statue of the saint, by Charles Henry Niehaus, that stands in front of the Saint Louis Art Museum in Forest Park. • A heroic portrait by Baron Charles de Steuben hangs in the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Baltimore. An 1821 gift of King Louis XVIII of France, it depicts St. Louis burying his plague-stricken troops before the siege of Tunis at the beginning of the Eighth Crusade in 1270. ==In fiction==

'' by Georges Rouget, 1820 • Louis IX, play by Jacques-François Ancelot, 1819 • Davis, William Stearns, "Falaise of the Blessed Voice" aka "The White Queen". New York: Macmillan, 1904 • Peter Berling, The Children of the Grail • Jules Verne, "To the Sun?/Off on a Comet!" A comet takes several bits of the Earth away when it grazes the Earth. Some people, taken up at the same time, find the Tomb of Saint Louis is one of the bits, as they explore the comet. • Adam Gidwitz, ''The Inquisitor's Tale'' • Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia. It is likely that Dante hides the figure of the Saint King behind the Veltro, the Messo di Dio, the Veglio di Creta and the "515", which is a duplicate of the Messo. This is a trinitarian representation to oppose to the analogous representation of his grandson Philip IV the Fair, as the Beast from the Sea. The idea came to Dante from the transposition of the Revelation of St. John in the history, studied from the abbot and theologian Joachim of Fiore. • Theodore de Bainville, poem, "La Ballade des Pendus (Le Verger du Roi Louis)"; musicalized by Georges Brassens. ==Music==

• Arnaud du Prat, Paris canon; Rhymed, chanted office for St. Louis, 1290, Sens Bib. Mun. MS6, and elsewhere. • Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet for Saint Louis, H.320, for 1 voice, 2 treble instruments (?) and continuo 1675. • Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet In honorem santi Ludovici Regis Galliae canticum tribus vocibus cum symphonia, H.323, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo (1678 ?) • Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae, H.332, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo (1683) • Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae canticum, H.365 & H.365 a, for soloists, chorus, woodwinds, strings and continuo (1690) • Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet In honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae, H.418, for soloists, chorus, 2 flutes, 2 violins and continuo (1692–93) ==See also==