Main battle tank

Initial limited-role tank classes , 1916 During World War I, combining tracks, armour, and guns into a functional vehicle pushed the limits of mechanical technology. This limited the specific battlefield capabilities any one tank design could be expected to fulfill. A design could have good speed, armour, or firepower, but not all three together. Facing the deadlock of trench warfare, the first tank designs focused on crossing wide trenches, requiring very long and large vehicles, such as the British Mark I tank and successors; these became known as heavy tanks. Tanks that focused on other combat roles were smaller, like the French Renault FT; these were light tanks or tankettes. Many late-war and inter-war tank designs diverged from these according to new, and mostly untried, concepts for future tank roles and tactics. Each nation tended to create its own list of tank classes with different intended roles, such as "cavalry tanks", "breakthrough tanks", "fast tanks", and "assault tanks". The British maintained cruiser tanks that in order to achieve high speed and hence manoeuvrability in the attack carried less armour, and infantry tanks which operating at infantryman pace could carry more armour. Evolution of the general-purpose medium tank light cavalry tank, Battle of France, 1940 After years of isolated and divergent development, the various interwar tank concepts were finally tested with the start of World War II. In the chaos of blitzkrieg, tanks designed for a single role often found themselves forced into battlefield situations they were ill-suited for. During the war, limited-role tank designs tended to be replaced by more general-purpose designs, enabled by improving tank technology. Tank classes became mostly based on weight (and the corresponding transport and logistical needs). This led to new definitions of heavy and light tank classes, with medium tanks covering the balance of those between. The German Panzer IV tank, designed before the war as a "heavy" tank for assaulting fixed positions, was redesigned during the war with armour and gun upgrades to allow it to take on anti-tank roles as well, and was reclassified as a medium tank. The second half of World War II saw an increased reliance on general-purpose medium tanks, which became the bulk of the tank combat forces. Generally, these designs massed about , were armed with cannons around , and powered by engines in the range. Notable examples include the Soviet T-34 (the most-produced tank at that time) and the US M4 Sherman. Late war tank development placed increased emphasis on armour, armament, and anti-tank capabilities for medium tanks: • The German Panther tank, designed to counter the Soviet T-34, had both armament and armour increased over previous medium tanks. Unlike previous Panzer designs, its frontal armour was sloped for increased effectiveness. It also was equipped with the high-velocity long-barreled 75 mm KwK 42 L/70 gun that was able to defeat the armour of all but the heaviest Allied tank at long range. The powerful Maybach HL230 P30 engine and robust running gear meant that even though the Panther tipped the scales at • The American M26 Pershing, a medium tank of to replace the M4 Sherman, innovated in US tanks many features common on post-war MBTs. These features include an automatic transmission mounted in the rear, torsion bar suspension and had an early form of a powerpack, combining an engine and transmission into a compact package. The M26, however, suffered from a relatively weak engine for its weight (effectively the same engine as the lighter M4A3 Sherman), and as a result was somewhat underpowered. The design of the M26 had profound influence on American postwar medium and main battle tanks: "The M26 formed the basis for the postwar generation of US battle tanks from the M46 through the M47, M48, and M60 series." British universal tank Mk 5 Britain had continued on the path of parallel development of cruiser tanks and infantry tanks. Development of the Rolls-Royce Meteor engine for the Cromwell tank, combined with efficiency savings elsewhere in the design, almost doubled the horsepower for cruiser tanks. This led to speculation of a "Universal Tank", able to take on the roles of both a cruiser and an infantry tank by combining heavy armour and manoeuvrability. Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery is acknowledged as the main advocate of the British universal tank concept as early as 1943, according to the writings of Giffard Le Quesne Martel, but little progress was made beyond development of the basic Cromwell cruiser tank that eventually led to the Centurion. The Centurion, at the time designated "heavy cruiser" and later "medium gun tank" was designed for mobility and firepower at the expense of armour, but more engine power permitted more armour protection, so the Centurion could also operate as an infantry tank, doing so well that development of a new tank was rendered unnecessary. The Centurion, entering service just as World War II finished, was a multi-role tank that subsequently formed the main armoured element of the British Army of the Rhine, the armed forces of the British Empire and Commonwealth forces, and subsequently many other nations through exports, whose cost was met largely by the US. The introduction of the 20-pounder gun in 1948 gave the tank a significant advantage over other tanks of the era, paving the way for a new tank classification, the main battle tank, which gradually superseded previous weight and armament classes. during Cold War comprehensively superseded World War II medium tanks such as the T-34. Cold War A surplus of effective WWII-era designs in other forces, notably the US and the Soviet Union, led to slower introductions of similar designs on their part. By the early 1950s, these designs were clearly no longer competitive, especially in a world of shaped charge weapons, and new designs rapidly emerged from most armed forces. The Quebec conference in 1957 between the US, UK and Canada identified the MBT as the route for development rather than separate medium and heavy tanks. The concept of the medium tank gradually evolved into the MBT in the 1960s, as it was realized that medium tanks could carry guns (such as the American , Soviet , and especially the British L7) that could penetrate any practical level of armour then existing at long range. Also, the heaviest tanks were unable to use most existing bridges. The World War II concept of heavy tanks, armed with the most powerful guns and heaviest armour, became obsolete because the large tanks were too expensive and just as vulnerable to damage by mines, bombs, rockets, and artillery. Likewise, World War II had shown that lightly armed and armoured tanks were of limited value in most roles. Even reconnaissance vehicles had shown a trend towards heavier weight and greater firepower during World War II; speed was not a substitute for armour and firepower. undergoing decontamination An increasing variety of anti-tank weapons and the perceived threat of a nuclear war prioritized the need for additional armour. The additional armour prompted the design of even more powerful guns. (the T-54/55 and T-62 were considered "medium" tanks) and the first American nomenclature-designated MBT was the M60 tank. with M48 turret and 105mm cannon Anti-tank weapons rapidly outpaced armour developments. By the 1960s, anti-tank rounds could penetrate a meter of steel so as to make the application of traditional rolled homogeneous armour unpragmatic. The first solution to this problem was the composite armor of Soviet T-64 tank, which included steel-glass-reinforced textolite-steel sandwich in heavily sloped glacis plates, and steel turret with aluminum inserts, which helped to resist both high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and APDS shells of the era. Later came British Chobham armour. This composite armour used layers of ceramics and other materials to help attenuate the effects of HEAT munitions. Another threat came by way of the widespread use of helicopters in battle. Before the advent of helicopters, armour was heavily concentrated to the front of the tank. This new threat caused designs to distribute armour on all sides of the tank (also having the effect of protecting the vehicle's occupants from nuclear explosion radiation). By the late 1970s, MBTs were manufactured by China, France, West Germany, Britain, India, Italy, Japan, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. The Soviet Union made novel advancements to the weapon systems including mechanical autoloaders and anti-tank guided missiles. Autoloaders were introduced to replace the human loader, permitting the turret to be reduced in size, making the tank smaller and less visible as a target, while missile systems were added to extend the range at which a vehicle could engage a target and thereby enhance the first-round hit probability. Though the Persian Gulf War reaffirmed the role of main battle tanks, MBTs were outperformed by the attack helicopter. Other strategists considered that the MBT was entirely obsolete in light of the efficiency and speed with which coalition forces neutralized Iraqi armour. Asymmetrical warfare in the PSO-version, prepared for asymmetric warfare In asymmetric warfare, threats such as improvised explosive devices and mines have proven effective against MBTs. In response, nations that face asymmetric warfare, such as Israel, are reducing the size of their tank fleet and procuring more advanced models. Conversely, some insurgent groups like Hezbollah themselves operate main battle tanks, such as the T-72. The United States Army used 1,100 M1 Abrams in the course of the Iraq War. They proved to have an unexpectedly high vulnerability to improvised explosive devices. A relatively new type of remotely detonated mine, the explosively formed penetrator, was used with some success against American armoured vehicles. However, with upgrades to their rear armour, M1s proved to be valuable in urban combat; at the Second Battle of Fallujah the United States Marines brought in two extra companies of M1s. Britain deployed its Challenger 2 tanks to support its operations in southern Iraq. Advanced armour has reduced crew fatalities but has not improved vehicle survivability. Small unmanned turrets on top of the cupolas called remote controlled weapon stations armed with machine guns or mortars provide improved defence and enhance crew survivability. Experimental tanks with unmanned turrets locate crew members in the heavily armoured hull, improving survivability and reducing the vehicle's profile. A British military document from 2001 indicated that the British Army would not procure a replacement for the Challenger 2 because of a lack of conventional warfare threats in the foreseeable future. The obsolescence of the tank has been asserted, but the history of the late 20th and early 21st century suggested that MBTs were still necessary. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Western and Russian MBTs saw large-scale combat in large numbers. ==Design==

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe defines a main battle tank as "a self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower, primarily of a high muzzle velocity direct fire main gun necessary to engage armoured and other targets, with high cross-country mobility, with a high level of self-protection, and which is not designed and equipped primarily to transport combat troops." Overview Countermeasures is equipped with Chobham armour, an advanced composite armour. Originally, most MBTs relied on steel armour to defend against various threats. As newer threats emerged, however, the defensive systems used by MBTs had to evolve to counter them. One of the first new developments was the use of explosive reactive armour (ERA), developed by Israel in the early 1980s to defend against the shaped-charge warheads of modern anti-tank guided missiles and other such high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) projectiles. This technology was subsequently adopted and expanded upon by the United States and the Soviet Union. Merkava Mk. IVm tank pictured on the Gaza border. It has the Trophy Active Protection System installed, which has become operational in the IDF since 2011 to deal with missile threats. MBT armour is concentrated at the front of the tank, where it is layered up to thick. demonstrating 360-degree neutral steering capability has a three-tier protection system, with the Afghanit APS, the Malachit ERA, and composite armour. Missiles are cheap and cost-effective anti-tank weapons. MBTs can also be protected from radar detection by incorporating stealth technology. The T-14 Armata has a turret designed to be harder to detect with radars and thermal sights. Advanced camouflage, like the Russian Nakidka, will also reduce the radar and thermal signatures of a MBT. Other defensive developments focused on improving the strength of the armour itself; one of the notable advancements coming from the British with the development of Chobham armour in the 1970s. It was first employed on the American M1 Abrams and later the British Challenger 1. Chobham armour uses a lattice of composite and ceramic materials along with metal alloys to defeat incoming threats, and proved highly effective in the conflicts in Iraq in the early 1990s and 2000s; surviving numerous impacts from 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s era rocket-propelled grenades with negligible damage. It is much less efficient against later models of RPGs. For example, the RPG-29 from the 1980s is able to penetrate the frontal hull armour of the Challenger 2. Weaponry Mk 3d BAZ of the Israel Defense Forces firing its main gun Main battle tanks are equipped with a main gun and at least one machine gun. MBT main guns are generally between and caliber, and can fire both anti-armour and, more recently, anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves a dual role, able to engage other armoured targets such as tanks and fortifications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and infantry. It is fixed to the turret, along with the loading and fire mechanism. Modern tanks use a sophisticated fire-control system, including rangefinders, computerized fire control, and stabilizers, which are designed to keep the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull is turning or shaking, making it easier for the operators to fire on the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70, but were diligently developed by the Soviet Union, who even retrofitted them to T-55 tanks, in an effort to double the effective range of the vehicle's fire. The MBT's role could be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect fire. The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely delivering powerful fire while minimizing collateral damage. This reduces the silhouette which improves the MBT's target profile. However, with a manual loader, the rounds can be isolated within a blowout chamber, rather than a magazine within the turret, which could improve crew survivability. However, the force of a modern depleted uranium APFSDS round at the muzzle can exceed 6000 kN (a rough estimate, considering a uranium 60 cm/2 cm rod, 19g/cm3, @ 1,750 m/s). Composite+reactive armour could withstand this kind of force through its deflection and deformation, but with a second hit in the same area, an armour breach is inevitable. As such, the speed of follow up shots is crucial within tank to tank combat. As secondary weapons, an MBT usually uses between two and four machine guns to engage infantry and light vehicles. Many MBTs mount one heavy caliber anti-aircraft machine gun (AAMG), usually of .50 caliber (like the M2 Browning or DShK), which can be used against helicopters and low flying aircraft. However, their effectiveness is limited in comparison to dedicated anti-aircraft artillery. The tank's machine guns are usually equipped with between 500 and 3,000 rounds each. In 2025, Rheinmetall's 130 mm smoothbore cannon became the reference gun for multiple European MBT projects, including Leopard 3 and MGCS, reflecting a continental shift beyond NATO-standard 120 mm calibers. Situational awareness Performing situational awareness and communicating is one of four primary MBT functions. For situational awareness, the crew can use a circular review system combining augmented reality and artificial Intelligence technologies. These systems use several externally mounted video sensors to transfer a 360º view of the tank's surroundings onto crew helmet-mounted displays or other display systems. Mobility MBTs, like previous models of tanks, move on continuous tracks, which allow a decent level of mobility over most terrain including sand and mud. They also allow tanks to climb over most obstacles. MBTs can be made water-tight, so they can even dive into shallow water ( with snorkel). However, tracks are not as fast as wheels; the maximum speed of a tank is about . The extreme weight of vehicles of this type also limits their speed. They are usually equipped with a engine (more than ), with an operational range near . The German Army has prioritized mobility in its Leopard 2 which is considered one of the fastest MBTs in existence. The Leopard 2A8 retains the MTU MB 873 Ka-501 engine delivering 1,500 horsepower, paired with enhanced suspension for higher endurance over rough terrain. Ergonomic redesigns, improved climate control, and NBC protection further enhance crew performance in extended combat scenarios. The MBT is often cumbersome in traffic and frequently obstructs the normal flow of traffic. The tracks can damage some roads after repeated use. Many structures like bridges do not have the load capacity to support an MBT. In the fast pace of combat, it is often impossible to test the sturdiness of these structures. Though appreciated for its excellent off-road characteristics, the MBT can become immobilized in muddy conditions. The high cost of MBTs can be attributed in part to the high-performance engine-transmission system and to the fire control system. Also, propulsion systems are not produced in high enough quantities to take advantage of economies of scale. Crew fatigue limits the operational range of MBTs in combat. Reducing the crew to three and relocating all crewmembers from the turret to the hull could provide time to sleep for one off-shift crewmember located in the rear of the hull. In this scenario, crewmembers would rotate shifts regularly and all would require cross-training on all vehicle job functions. Cargo aircraft are instrumental to the timely deployment of MBTs. The absence of sufficient numbers of strategic airlift assets can limit the rate of MBT deployments to the number of aircraft available. Military planners anticipate that the airlift capability for MBTs will not improve in the future. The task of resupply is usually accomplished with large trucks. File:T-84 Oplat guided onto a tank transporter.jpg|Ukrainian BM Oplot, produced by the KMDB guided onto a tank transporter File:Challenger 1 suspension.jpg|A former British Army Challenger 1 File:SETC Italy (26890728102).jpg|The Italian Ariete. Its relatively low weight (54 tonnes) facilitates mobility, especially while crossing bridges. File:Arjun MK1A MBT.webm|The Indian Arjun MK1A demonstrating movement over bump track Storage Main battle tanks have internal and external storage space. Internal space is reserved for ammunition. External space enhances independence of logistics and can accommodate extra fuel and some personal equipment of the crew. Many main battle tanks have a bustle, an extension on the rear of the tank turret usually used for storage of ammunition, often with blow-out panels and separated from the rest of the crew compartment, that serve to protect the tank from being totally destroyed in the event the ammunition is hit, which has become known as the Jack-in-the-box-effect. Attached to this bustle extension may be an externally mounted bustle rack, where tank crews can store gear and supplies that would be useful when out in the field on operation or exercise, but not essential for operation of the tank and subsequently not needed inside it. The Israeli Merkava can accommodate crew members displaced from a destroyed vehicle in its ammunition compartment. ==Crew==

Emphasis is placed on selecting and training main battle tank crew members. The crew must perform their tasks faultlessly and harmoniously so commanders select teams taking into consideration personalities and talents. Modern main battle tanks have been reduced to between three and four crew members where the fifth dual role member has been eliminated entirely, and three person tank crews make use of an autoloader to eliminate the need for the loader role, such as in post World War II Soviet and modern day Russian tank designs, as well as the current French main battle tank, the Leclerc. Most NATO member countries, and nations that use tanks designed by them, retain the loader crewmember and opt for a four person crew. ==Role==

ride on an M1A1 Abrams tank in April 2003. The main battle tank fulfills the role the British had once called the "universal tank", filling almost all battlefield roles. They were originally designed in the Cold War to combat other MBTs. In asymmetric warfare, main battle tanks are deployed in small, highly concentrated units. MBTs fire only at targets at close range and instead rely on external support such as unmanned aircraft for long range combat. Main battle tanks have significantly varied characteristics. Procuring too many varieties can place a burden on tactics, training, support and maintenance. The MBT has a positive morale effect on the infantry it accompanies. It also instills fear in the opposing force who can often hear and even feel their arrival. ==Procurement==

Manufacture line up an M1 Abrams turret with its hull.MBT production is increasingly being outsourced to wealthy nations. Countries that are just beginning to produce tanks are having difficulties remaining profitable in an industry that is increasingly becoming more expensive through the sophistication of technology. Even some large-scale producers are seeing declines in production. Even China is divesting many of its MBTs. Prices for MBTs have more than tripled from 1943 to 2011, although this pales in comparison with the price increase in fighter aircraft from 1943 to 1975. Some tank producers, such as Japan and Israel, choose not to market their creations for export. The American M1 Abrams is also sold to export countries in a more stripped down variant, most notably is the absence of depleted uranium armor on the M1A2S variant of the M1A2 sold to Saudi Arabia.Other Abrams tanks have been equipped with diesel engines for export customers, differing from the standard turbine engine found in US versions of the tank. In other cases, specialised, but not downgraded, versions of tanks will be produced for export to a specific country. The German Leopard 2 has been modified to meet various national requirements, such as the Canadian Leopard 2A4M CAN and A6 CAN, the Norwegian 2A8 NOR and the Spanish Leopard 2E. Similarly, some nations may chose to upgrade tanks they import from other nations, featuring domestic elements, or using parts from other tanks. For example the British Sherman Firefly was an American M4 Sherman with a more powerful British-built QF 17-pounder gun fitted in place of the 75mm or 76mm gun. South Africa's current Main Battle Tank, the Olifant, is a heavily upgraded British Centurion tank, swapping the original British Rolls Royce Meteor 4B for the American Continental AV1790. Tanks can also be licensed build, a practice dating back to even the earliest models of tanks produced during World War I. The first tanks mass-produced by America, the M1917, and Italy, the Fiat 3000, were licensed built copies of the French Renault FT light tank while the first Main Battle Tank to be licensed built was the Indian Vijayanta, a copy of the British Vickers MBT. More recently, the Panzer 87, built by Switzerland for its armed forces, is a licensed built copy of the German Leopard 2, and the T-72 has been licensed built in various nations, even after domestic production ended. In other instances, countries may use another nations tanks to form the basis of their own tank production, developing the tank into a different one. This differs from licensed built examples in that the tank differs from the original model in significant ways, such as different powerpacks, fire control systems, armament and protection, while licensed built examples are usually one to one copies of the original model. Examples include and the Turkish Altay, based on the South Korean K2 Black Panther, having replaced the South Korean auto loader with a manual loading system, and the Chinese Type 99 based on the T-72 chassis. == Current and future MBT development (2020s–) ==

As of the mid-2020s, several countries have launched parallel main battle tank (MBT) development programs in response to aging fleets, evolving battlefield threats such as unmanned aerial systems (UAS), and the ongoing war in Ukraine. These programs reflect a broader European Defence Fund (EDF) strategy of maintaining sovereign industrial capabilities and preparing for eventual convergence into a next-generation MBT family. Key initiatives include: • Future Main Battle Tank (FMBT): Future Main Battle Tank being developed by the Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE) of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian Army. The FMBT design is expected to replace the older generation MBTs of the Indian Army Armoured Corps from 2030 onwards. The tank is a further development of the previous generation Arjun main battle tanks of the Army. FMBT is to be fitted with the 1500hp DATRAN engine. • Main Ground Combat System (MGCS): A Franco-German project formally launched in 2017, MGCS aims to field a new "system-of-systems" to replace the Leopard 2 and Leclerc tanks by 2040. The MGCS Project Company (MPC) was formed in 2025 by KNDS (Germany and France), Rheinmetall, and Thales to serve as the industrial prime contractor. The system is expected to include a manned MBT, robotic wingmen, and integrated counter-UAS and AI command layers. • Leopard 2 A8: Developed by KNDS Deutschland, the Leopard 2 A8 serves as an interim solution, integrating upgrades such as the Hensoldt MUSS 2.0 active protection system, a hybrid-ready powerpack, Safran Paseo panoramic sights, and a digital BMS V3 backbone. As of 2025, over 400 units have been ordered by Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Lithuania. • Leopard 3: An experimental demonstrator platform developed by Rheinmetall, intended to test key subsystems for MGCS. It features a 130 mm smoothbore gun, AI-based fire control, optional remote turret, and enhanced mobility via hybrid-electric drive. Leopard 3 bridges the technological gap between current systems and MGCS fielding. • FMBTech (Future Main Battle Tank Technologies): Launched in April 2025 with €19.9 million in EDF funding,—for integration into both legacy and future MBTs. • MARTE (Main ARmoured Tank of Europe): Also EDF-backed, MARTE is a clean-sheet tank development initiative led by KNDS and Rheinmetall. ==See also==