Portugal in the Reconquista

In 711, a Muslim army commanded by Tariq ibn Ziyad, belonging to the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, invaded the Iberian peninsula then controlled in its entirety by the Visigothic Kingdom. The Visigoths and their king, Roderic, were defeated at the Battle of Guadalete and from that moment on the peninsula was quickly captured by Muslim forces, which included Arabs and Berbers, in about two years thereafter. Eleven years later Pelagius revolted against the Muslim occupation in Asturias and in 722 defeated a Muslim force at the Battle of Covadonga, expelled the Muslim governor Munuza from the region and founded the Kingdom of Asturias. This kingdom gradually expanded across the mountainous north of the Iberian peninsula, capturing Leon and Galicia among other territories and it would be under the aegis of its kings that 146 years later Christian rule would reach the banks of the Douro River, where the city and region of Portucale, now Porto, was located. Important events took place in al-Andalus before the founding of the county of Portugal. Around the emir of Cordoba grew an expensive bureaucratic apparel manned by slaves, freemen and berbers as well as an army of mercenary slave or Berber troops, which drew the hostility of both the Arab aristocracy as well as recent converts to Islam. For half a century, the west of Iberia corresponding to the old Roman province of Lusitania elluded Cordoban control. Instability in al-Andalus would provide the Christian kingdoms with an opportunity to advance at its expense. == Establishment of the counties of Portugal and Coimbra, 868-977 ==

Alfonso III succeded on the throne in 866. He envisioned the restoration of the Gothic monarchy in Iberia and hoped to achieve it in his lifetime, but this depended on securing several great frontier strongholds. Count Odoário seized Chaves in 872, and from this city the process of capture and resettlement of the mountainous Trás-os-Montes began, first in and around the fertile lands of the Chaves valley. Other locations south of the Douro were then taken and resettled by order of Alfonso III of Asturias, such as Viseu, Lamego, and Anégia. Lardosa was seized in 882 by Muzara and Zamora, two Mozarabs most likely coming from the south. The Christian border progressed nearly 200 km south along the coast, passing from the Douro River to the Mondego valley but inland the border ran northeast along the Estrela mountain range on the northern slope but probably did not exceed the Côa River to the east. == Cordoban campaigns 977–1008 ==

On October 1, 976, Hisham II succeeded Al-Hakam II on the throne of Cordoba. The following week, he appointed Ibn Abi Amir, later known as Almanzor, to the position of hajib or prime minister. Almanzor continued the military reforms previously begun by Al-Hakam II and he instituted a policy of destructive campaigns against the Christian kingdoms of the north the following year, usually twice a year, to collect tribute or sack them if they refused to pay. This policy would continue beyond his death until 1008. These were 31 years of Cordoban hegemony imposed on the Christian kingdoms with brutality and the most chaotic since the beginning of the Reconquista. Almanzor's 15th campaign in 981 was the first to be directed at modern-day Portuguese territory. Both towns were sacked and their populations carried off to slavery. The count of Coimbra at that time was Froila Gonçalves. In 987, Almanzor attacked Coimbra once more, but he returned at the head of his troops that same year and occupied the city on June 27, as well as Seia, Viseu, and Lamego. Froila Gonçalves chose to collaborate with Almanzor and switched sides, thus preserving his property and vassals. The border thus shifted back to the Douro Valley, although the castle of Montemor-o-Velho would return to Christian possession, only to fall into Muslim hands again. The strong castle of Aguiar do Sousa was sacked in 995 despite its exceptional defensive qualities, and the Muslims captured thousands of people during this campaign. In 997, Almanzor set out on his most famous raid, the Santiago de Compostela campaign. The cavalry left Córdoba on 3 July accompanied by supply wagons, along the old Roman road that headed northwest, while the infantry, weapons, provisions and ammunition headed for the port city of Alcácer do Sal, where they would embark to the rendezvous point at the city of Porto, in Portuguese territory. At Coria, several counts from León joined Almanzor's army. From there, Almanzor reached Viseu, where he was joined by subjugated counts and Christian nobles exiled from their countries, such as Galindo the Galician or Froila Gonçalves, former count of Coimbra, who had preferred to side with Almanzor when he captured the city in 987. Once the army and navy had gathered by the Douro River, the troops crossed it via a pontoon bridge that Almanzor had built, the first to connect its two banks. Porto was poorly fortified and offered little resistance. The campaign towards Galicia was preceded by an incursion by troops led by a brother of Froila Gonçalves, Veila Gonçalves, who lived in Terra de Santa Maria under Muslim rule and was charged with neutralising any forces that could jeopardise the advance of the Muslim army, namely those of Count Gonçalo Mendes of Portugal. Almanzor died on August 8, 1002, and was succeeded by his son Abdal Malik Al-Muzzafar. Threatened by Cordoban troops sent to reinforce Coimbra, count Mendo Gonçalves of Portugal realized that Muslim power remained intact despite the passing of Almansur, therefore he chose to negotiate the maintenance of a previous truce. Almuzzafar effectively displayed the same diligence and mastery as his father when performing his duties, albeit for only six years, until his death. Count Mendo Gonçalves also died in 1008 and was succeeded by Alvito Nunes. == First advance to the Tagus, 1009-1093 ==

Civil war broke out in the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1009 and this would ultimately result in the fragmentation of the Andaluz into several independent and rival emirates or taifa states, a circumstance which benefited the Christian kingdoms of the north. Though ascribed to an earlier date in traditional historiography, the episode known as "the armada of the Gascons" is likely to have taken place about this time. Now that Cordoba had fallen to infighting once more and ceased their predatory campaigns, the Christian peoples sought to reconstruct their lands now left largely in disarray. On October 14, 1034, Gonçalo Trastamires da Maia reconquered Montemor-o-Velho, thus bringing the border to the Mondego river. The emir of Seville, Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abbad, invaded Christian territory in 1035, but was defeated by King Bermudo III at the Battle of Cesar. The conquest of Beiras, 1055–1064 In 1054, Emperor Ferdinand I of León prepared a military campaign in Tierra de Campos with the intention of recapturing the territories which had been lost to the Muslims in the west of the peninsula. In the summer of the following year he crossed the river Douro from Zamora and entered Portugal. Lamego was reconquered on 29 November 1057 after a hard campaign, the Muslim inhabitants of this town were enslaved and their property expropriated for the restoration of local churches. The reconquest of Viseu followed in 1058, and the attackers were encouraged by the spirit of revenge over the death of King Alfonso during the siege of 1028. In 1063, the Emperor carried out a large raid against the taifas of Seville and Badajoz, from which he began receiving tribute and in this same year the mozarabic lord of Tentúgal, Dom Sisnando Davides proposed to Emperor Ferdinand the capture of nearby Coimbra. Dom Sesnando had served in the Court of Cordoba and married the daughter of the last count of Portugal. The Emperor accepted the proposal and an expedition was prepared in December. After a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela that included the entire royal family, Coimbra was beset on January 20, 1064, and fell to Christian hands on July 9, 1064, after a six-month siege. Six years later, the barons of Portugal revolted under the leadership of count Nuno Mendes, but he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Pedroso, struck between Braga and the Cávado. Capture of Santarém, Lisbon and Sintra, 1093 After the disastrous Battle of Sagrajas against the Almoravids in 1086, king Alfonso VI of León appealed to France for help. In 1090, Raymond of Burgundy married the daughter and heir of Emperor Alfonso VI and was later given the title of count of Galicia with authority over all the territory in the west of the peninsula from Galicia to Coimbra. The mozarabic count of Coimbra Martim Moniz de Ribadouro on the other hand was sacked from his position. At a time when the Almoravid emir Yusuf Ibn Tashfin sought to annex all the small taifa states in the peninsula, the emir of Badajoz offered to become a tributary vassal of Leon and to hand over the cities of Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém in exchange for military protection. The Emperor was in Coimbra on April 22, 1093, and on the occasion confirmed the charter of privileges of this city. Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém were then occupied between April 30 and May 8, 1093. Soeiro Mendes was appointed governor of the territory ceded by the emir of Badajoz. Mendes was subordinate to Raymond, tasked with defending all the territory from Galicia to the Tagus. == Almoravid campaigns, 1094–1135 ==

The delivery of territory to Christians caused outrage among Muslims in Andaluz and the Maghreb and the residents of Santarém, Lisbon and Sintra requested the Almoravid emir Yusuf Ibn Tashfin to intervene on their behalf, shortly after Soeiro Mendes had taken possession of the territory. A few months later in 1093 still, the Almoravid general Seyr landed in Iberia with a numerous army and orders to recapture Badajoz, Lisbon, Sintra and Santarém. Lisbon and Sintra surrendered to the Almoravids in 1094. Besieged by Almoravid forces, Soeiro Mendes, resisted vigorously in Santarém until Seyr withdrew to north Africa. Reestablishment of the county of Portugal Count Raymonds lack of capacity against the Muslims resulted in his loss of prestige at the Leonese Court. In 1096 his cousin Henry was made new Count of Portugal and attributed the territory between the river Minho and Mondego. In 1102, count Henry defeated a Muslim force at the Battle of Arouca, together with Egas Moniz. In 1108 and 1109, King Sigurd of Norway sailed along the western coast of Iberia on his way to the Holy Land with 60 ships and 5,000 men, in what would become known as the Norwegian Crusade. Having departed in the autumn of 1107, a year later the Norwegians wintered on the coast of Galicia with the permission of a local lord, but, lacking provisions, they pillaged his castle. On their way to the Mediterranean, they sailed up the Ribeira de Colares, which at that time was not yet silted up, and then plundered the castle of Sintra or Colares, fought against the garrison of Lisbon near the city and then plundered Alcácer do Sal. Loss of Santarém, 1111 In 1110 Count Henry dispatched the adail Soeiro Fromarigues to Santarém with a number of troops to reinforce the city against the almoravids, who threatened the southern frontier. These forces were however attacked while encamped at Vatalandi, an unknown location close to the Tagus. Soeiro Fromarigues and the knight Miro Crescones were killed in action. The following year, Santarém was again besieged by an army led by Seyr. Lacking sufficient forces to resist effectively or sure relief, the city fell to the Almoravids and the county of Santarém was abolished. Count Henry died in 1112 and his wife Teresa took over as regent for their young son Afonso Henriques. Almoravid campaigns, 1116–1117 New Almoravid attacks had been expected ever since the death of Count Henry, however only in 1116 did an Almoravid army commanded by Abd al-Malik advance against Coimbra and its territory. The Almoravids massacred the garrison of the castle of Miranda do Corvo and captured the garrison of Santa Eulália, including its alcaide Diogo Galinha. The siege of Coimbra marked the height of Almoravid power in Iberia. Keeping Coimbra would have proven difficult for the Almoravids. After the successful defense of Coimbra, Teresa henceforth signed as "queen". Establishment of the Templars in Portugal The Templars settled in Portugal after Teresa donated the Castle of Soure to the Order in 19th March 1128. The castle had been erected close to Coimbra in the second half of the 11th century by Sisnando Davides, on the road that connected Coimbra to Lisbon. The official act of donation took place in Braga, in the presence of Raymond Bernard, who had been recruited by Hughes de Payens to serve as one of a possible group of Templar scouts that would seek donations for the Order. The Templars found enthusiastic support in Portugal, whereas Teresas suzerain, Alfonso VII was not particularly enthralled with the new militia, though he did confirm the donation of Soure. In addition to Soure, the countess and around twenty or so magnates granted the Templars Fonte Arcada in Penafiel, along with many other properties in Minho and Galicia. Little is known about the first fifteen years of the Templars in Portugal, and their activities are likely to have been limited to the collection of rent to be sent overseas. The Order would only acquire fame when the first procurator of the Temple Hugo de Martone set up a community at Soure in 1143. == Definitive conquest of Estremadura, 1135–1148 ==

After the Battle of São Mamede on July 24 1128, Afonso Henriques took over the county of Portugal from his mother Teresa.In order to bolster the defenses of Coimbra against the raids that the Almoravids conducted on the region every year in the Spring and Summer, in December 1135 Afonso Henriques built the Castle of Leiria, overlooking a road in the no man's land roughly halfway between Coimbra and Santarém. The famed warrior Dom Paio Guterres was appointed as its castellan with a strong garrison. Dom Paio Guterres launched so many successful raids against Santarém that in 1137 the castle was assaulted and razed, with over 250 men among knights and footmen being killed. Paio Guterres however, managed to escape back to Portugal. Leiria was reoccupied by the Portuguese sometime between 1137 and 1140. The Battle of Ourique, 1139 After the Treaty of Tuy was signed and peace sealed with Emperor Alfonso VII of León, king Afonso Henriques led a major raid in Muslim territory. The Portuguese numbered about 800 to 1000 knights and 1600 to 2000 footmen, among spearmen and crossbowmen. On their way back they were intercepted by a Muslim force commanded by "Esmar", likely the governor of Cordoba Muhammad Az-Zubayr Ibn Umar at Ourique. The Muslim horsemen then ventured deep into Portuguese territory as far as Trancoso, which they sacked. In Galicia meanwhile, Afonso Henriques signed a peace treaty with King Afonso VII of León following the Battle of Arcos de Valdevez. He then set out southwards, crossed the Douro near Lamego and led a cavalry charge against the Muslim tropps camped in Trancoso, whom he routed in two encounters. On his return from this campaign, he founded the Arouca Abbey. King Afonso convinced them to support his projected campaign against Lisbon, the ownership of which would yield him the control of all the territory between Leiria and the Tagus in one fell swoop. The crusader fleet sailed up the Tagus as the Portuguese approached Lisbon on the land side, and although the outskirts of the city were sacked, the attack had to be called off, presumably because king Afonso underestimated the undertaking. Afonso is likely to have refounded the Castle of Leiria on his return to Coimbra from his failed attack on Lisbon. Destruction of Soure, 1144 Peace was sealed with Leon in 1143 by the Treaty of Zamora, thereby securing the northern Portuguese border against Leonese attack. In 1144 a new Almoravid force departed Santarém and pillaged the Templar castle of Soure under the command of the qaid of Santarém Abu Zakaria, who took the defenders captive. Ibn Qasi was a radical anti-Almoravid millenarian whose writings displayed strong Ismaili esoterist tendencies and had given up leisurely life. The revolt of the muridun greatly weakened the ability of the Almoravids to respond to external threats, indirectly aiding the Christians. The muridun split in 1145 and Ibn Qasi was deposed by Ibn Wazir. In 1145 still, the Templars were granted the castle of Longroiva by Afonso Henriques' sister Sancha and her husband Fernão Mendes de Bragança II. Conquest of Santarém, 1147 Santarém was at the time the most dangerous city to Portuguese frontiers as it was from there that the Muslims launched most of their raids that ravaged the centre of Portugal. The castle of Santarém crowned a mountain-top overlooking the Tagus and the exceptionally fertile fields all around. Long years of experience in warfare induced king Afonso to try and capture it via a cunning ruse. On March 10 the king departed from Coimbra with a small force, which was joined along the way by Templar knights from Soure. With the fall of Santarém, the only major strongholds that remained in Muslim hands in the region were Lisbon and Sintra. Conquest of Lisbon, 1147 After the fall of Edessa, Pope Eugenius III called for a new crusade. Under these circumstances a new crusader fleet anchored at Porto on June 16, 1147, on their way to the Middle East. The Bishop of Porto Pedro Pitões II convinced them to participate in the projected siege to Lisbon. . The host of Afonso Henriques departed from Coimbra on 6 of June and when the crusader fleet sailed up the Tagus on June 28, the Portuguese had already pitched camp in Mount São Gens, to the north. The king was accompanied by some of the most distinguished figures among the nobility at the time, such as Fernão Mendes II of Braganza and the royal ensign Fernão Peres Cativo, along with other minor nobles such as Martim Moniz, who would perish in the siege. The Portuguese probably numbered about 3000 men, while the crusaders totalled 10,000 to 13,000 persons. The Portuguese pitched their camp to the north of the city, while the English and Normans pitched theirs to the west, and the Germans and Flemish to the east. The Monastery of São Vicente de Fora now stands where the Germanic contingent camped. A harsh siege followed in which the outer suburbs were violently taken and traction trebuchets, underground mines and a large movable siege tower were used. At the end of three months and 20 days the Muslim defenders were severely afflicted by hunger and plague due to a lack of room to bury the dead and asked to surrender. The king solemnly entered the city on October 25. Conquest of western Estremadura, 1148 Though Santarém, Lisbon and Sintra fell to the Portuguese in 1147, most of the region remained unsubdued as the Muslims still controlled a considerable number of important towns and castles. Some would have to be taken by force as not all accepted Christian rule willingly. Óbidos was an important fortified town north of Lisbon, set upon a hilltop. Less than three months after the capture of Lisbon, it was taken during on the night of 10 January 1148 by a group of men led by Gonçalo Mendes da Maia. That same year, Torres Novas and Porto de Mós were also taken. Alenquer was sieged in April and taken two months later on June 24. Torres Vedras had stout walls and it put up stubborn resistance, but it was taken by force on August 15, and all its occupants who had not managed to escape were massacred. On 8 December, Abrantes was captured. == Dispute for the Alentejo, 1148–1191 ==

. The first steps south of the Tagus were taken when Almada was captured during the siege of Lisbon, while Palmela was abandoned by its garrison when Lisbon fell into the hands of the Portuguese. The Alentejo was to be the scene of conflict between the Portuguese and Muslims for 91 years. Afonso Henriques tried to personally take Alcácer do Sal by surprise in 1151 at the head of a party of men, like he had done at Santarém, however the Portuguese were detected and the king wounded, hence he returned to Lisbon. That same year King Afonso laid plans for another attack on Alcácer do Sal and the English Bishop of Lisbon Gilbert of Hastings was sent to England to obtain help. After thirty years of stable leadership, León and Castile were divided between Ferdinand II of León and Sancho III of Castile. . News of the situation in León quickly reached Portugal. In April 1158 Alcácer do Sal was attacked for the fourth time and taken at the end of a sixty days siege, on 24 June. While the siege of Alcácer do Sal was ongoing, Ferdinand II of León and Sancho III of Castile met at the monastery of Sahagun in May 1158. The first Almohad invasion of Portugal, 1161 The entirety of the Maghreb was fully conquered by the Almohad Caliph Abd al-Mumin in 1160. The Almohads followed a radical version of Islam which placed great emphasis on holy war and tolerated neither Christians or Jews under their rule. They were now free to focus on the Iberian peninsula and Abd al-Mumin crossed the Strait of Gibraltar at the head of a large army of 18,000 men at the end of that year. Informed of the progress of the Portuguese south of the Tagus, he sent a detachment commanded by Abu Mohammed Abdallah ben Hafs to the western part of the peninsula. King Afonso gathered his host and took the field but at the Battle of Alcácer do Sal, the Portuguese were routed by the Almohads. Beja was evacuated and all the territory south of the Tagus was abandoned to the Almohads, with the exception of the port city of Alcácer do Sal, which remained as a bastion of Christian defense. Abu Hafs did not press further north after the Battle of Alcácer do Sal and was called back. After Sesimbra had fallen to the Christians, the Almohad governor of Badajoz marched to the region with an army to recapture it, but he was defeated at the Battle of Palmela, and this town surrendered afterwards. In 1166 still the warrior monks of a recently created Catholic military Order settled at Évora, however by order of the Pope they were integrated in the Order of Calatrava. Afonso Henriques also captured on this year Coruche, Arronches, Elvas, and Odemira, the latter via a surprise amphibious attack, quietly sailing up the Mira River; during the attack, the Portuguese encountered little resistance. In 1167, Monsaraz was captured by men of Geraldo the Fearless that had departed from Évora, while Gonçalo Mendes da Maia captured Noudar. The siege of Badajoz, 1169 Badajoz was one of the most important Almohad fortresses in the Andaluz and its authorities paid tribute to the Emperor of León. Due to the constant civil strife, its surrounding territory was by then depopulated. War broke out between Portugal and León in 1167 and two years later Badajoz was attacked by Gerald the Fearless and his men, who scaled the walls and took over the city. Its garrison however withdrew to its high citadel, which the men of Geraldes proved unable to take hence they requested aid from Afonso Henriques. The host of the Portuguese king arrived at Badajoz and settled within the city, however the defenders still in the high citadel were unexpectedly relieved not by the Almohad Caliph but by the Emperor of León and his army. When Afonso attempted to sally out with his men on horseback he broke his leg against the city gates and was then captured by the Leonese in Caia. Almohad attacks 1170–1173 The debacle of Badajoz in 1169 did not demoralize the Portuguese. Just a few months after the siege, Gerald the Fearless resumed the raids against the region of Badajoz and after luring its garrison out via a feigned attack and retreat he ambushed it and routed it completely. As king Afonso was now physically unable to ride and therefore lead his host on campaign, prince Sancho was knighted at the Church of Santa Cruz in Coimbra on August 15, 1170. A few weeks later in September the prince led a new siege against the now severely weakened Badajoz but the city was once again relieved on time, not just by Leonese forces but by an Almohad army commanded by Abu Hafs Umar ibn Yahya al-Hintati as well. After the great Almohad attack on Santarém, the master of the Templars in Portugal Gualdim Pais promoted the renovation of Almourol Castle in 1171 in order to strengthen the defenses of Portugal. Still this year, Gerald the Fearless was driven from his castle at Lobon. The Almohads are likely to have recaptured Beja in 1171. In August 1172, Gerald the Fearless launched a surprise night-time attack against the city. Its walls were poorly guarded as the Almohad governor Umar Ibn Sahnun had embezzled the pay of the sentries. The Portuguese managed to scale a tower and secure the city after a melee throughout its streets, but found they could not hold it and so they torched it, while its inhabitants scattered. Ambassadors were dispatched to Seville and a truce was then agreed-upon between Afonso Henriques and the Almohads a month later in October 1173. Truce, 1173–1178 After this truce was signed, Geraldo the Fearless left the service of king Afonso with 350 men and sought employment under the Almohads, who stationed him in Sous in north-Africa. After communications between Geraldes and king Afonso surfaced, he was transferred further inland to Draa and executed by the governor. A number of residents of Lisbon sailed to Sagres and brought back the remains of the saint buried in a temple on the "Sacred Promontory". The great Triana Raid, 1178 Once the truce with the Muslims was over, prince Sancho led a great raid deep into Muslim territory. Troops gathered in Coimbra in the month of May and they included both infantry and cavalry drawn from the Order of Calatrava, the urban militias of the city as well as various other towns, such as Santarém, Lisbon and Évora, and the hosts of some of the main nobles in Portugal. They camped a few kilometers west of Seville and routed an Almohad army dispatched to intercept them in a large pitched-battle outside the city. The great Triana Raid was one of the most daring military operations conducted in the history of Portugal and allowed the prince Sancho to affirm himself as a worthy commander and heir to the throne. A major landmark in Portuguese history was achieved in 1179 as by the Papal decree Manifestis Probatum, Portugal was acknowledged as an independent kingdom by the Vatican, largely as a result of king Afonsos efforts against the Muslims. He then proceeded for Ceuta and captured the ships on its harbour. At Évora however, the Almohads were forced to lift the siege and return to Seville. In 1182/83 a new Portuguese expedition formed by local militias from Lisbon and Santarém sacked the Ajarafe, the land of villages and olive orchards to the west of Seville. They would take numerous captives. The Almohad Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf then crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 1184 and moving through Seville and Badajoz invaded Portugal at the head of a large army with African and Andalusian contingents, in the sixth major offensive against Portugal. He besieged Santarém, then defended by Afonso Henriques, while Almohad detachments spread out through Estremadura and plundered the region. Prince Sancho managed to reinforce the city, and conducted a successful sally against the Almohads. Shortly after the siege of Santarém, Lisbon was attacked by an Almohad fleet, that included a large dromon outfitted with a siege tower. However the ship was sunk in a daring sabotage operation during the night, and after plundering the outskirts of Lisbon the following morning, the Almohads withdrew. His first four years were peaceful. Sancho was faced with the problem of large stretches of half-abandoned territory, ruined settlements and untilled fields due to war. A new castle was built on the Galician border at Contrasta, nowadays known as Valença. The capture of Silves, 1189 When Jerusalem was conquered by Saladin in October 1187, Pope Gregory VIII called for the Third Crusade. Sancho realized that a new wave of crusader fleets would soon pass by the Portuguese coasts on their way to Palestine. In 1189 ships from Denmark and Frisia called at Lisbon, and in June they attacked the castle of Alvor in Algarve. They were accompanied by Portuguese galleys as far as Gibraltar. A new crusader fleet called at Lisbon in 3 or 4 July and on this occasion king Sancho obtained their support for a planned attack against the major city of Silves, the most important one in the Gharb al-Andalus. On July 20, 1189, the Portuguese host set up camp close to Silves just as the crusader fleet arrived by sea and sailed up the River Arade. The city was first attacked the following day for about a month and a half it was subjected to a violent siege, in which siege engines were used. The inhabitants surrendered, together with the surrounding castles at Lagos, Alvor, Portimão, Monchique, Santo Estêvão, Carvoeiro, São Bartolomeu de Messines, Paderne e Sagres. The great Almohad campaign of 1190 The Almohad Caliph Abu Yusuf Yacub al-Mansur had been planning a great campaign against Portugal at least since 1188, even before the conquest of Silves. The taking of this prestigious city by the Portuguese however caused outrage in the Maghreb and the Caliph ordered holy war to be preached. In April 1190 he crossed the Strait of Gibraltar at the head of a large army and besieged Silves in June. The Caliph however left his cousin Sayyid Yahya Ibn Umar at the command of operations and then left for Cordoba, where he met with ambassadors of King Alfonso VIII of Castile, who accepted a truce, leaving the Almohads free to focus on the planned attack against Portugal. While Silves was under siege, Torres Novas was attacked and taken. Its defenders were granted freedom. The Caliph then personally besieged Tomar, a powerful Templar castle defended by Gualdim Pais, master of the Templars in Portugal. The Caliphs objective however was the important city and stronghold of Santarém. The king then departed to Santarém and settled in the city with his troops. Having met stiffer resistance than anticipated, the Caliph ordered the sieges on Santarém and Tomar to be lifted, and withdrew south. A Muslim garrison was then installed in the city, which was left under the command of the Andalusi Mohammed Ibn Sidray Ibn Wazir. A new siege was set upon Silves and this time the Caliph possessed four times more siege weapons than the defenders. The walled city was breached and the defenders withdrew to the high citadel. The Portuguese surrendered on July 25, being allowed to leave with their lives only and the campaign was brought to a close. == Consolidation, 1191–1217 ==

After the loss of almost all territory south of the Tagus, Sancho abandoned the title "king of the Algarve". In order to secure the territory still in Portuguese control against future Muslim incursions, for the following four years king Sancho followed a policy of consolidation and fortification of the frontier now set at the Tagus once more, largely supported by the military Orders. These were mainly the Templars, but also the knights of Santiago, Calatrava and the Hospitallers, which not only defended the territory but developed agriculture as well. Monasteries of the military Orders were established on the most important towns on the right bank of the Tagus, and land or castles were granted on the condition that monasteries be founded there. The string of castles and fortifications along the northern bank of the Tagus became known as the "Tagus Line" (Linha do Tejo in Portuguese). It included the Templar castles of Almourol, Castelo Branco, Pombal, Tomar, Zêzere, Idanha-a-Nova, the Santiago castles of Monsanto, Abrantes, Santarém, the Hospitaller castle of Belver, the castle of Torres Novas, the Castle of Alverca, the Castle of Povos, and Lisbon. The Battle of Alarcos, 1195 At this time, the Almohad caliph fell ill and affairs of state kept him busy in Morocco. King Alfonso VIII of Castile took the opportunity to invade the Andalus and he reached far as Algeciras, while the Archbishop of Toledo crossed the Guadalquivir and led an army to the heart of Andalusia, which was devastated. He first marched to Seville, then to Cordova, then crossed the Sierra Morena and descended on the plains to the north.The city of Guarda was founded in 1199, in a location that was both difficult to reach and allowed as many as twenty leagues of the surrounding territory to be watched. That same year, king Sancho also granted to the Templars the lands of Açafa, where the city of Castelo Branco would be established. It seems that the Almohads did not resettle the territory between Alcácer do Sal and the Tagus after devastating it, and King Sancho managed to recover some of the lands that had been lost in 1191. In 1200 the Order of Calatrava founded Benavente, on the south bank of the Tagus. The following year, the castles of Palmela and Sesimbra were reoccupied. Extreme famine swept across Western Europe in 1202, Portugal included, and the advance southwards was interrupted once again, in order to focus on agriculture and relief efforts. In 1203, Bishop Soeiro Viegas of Lisbon founded Alhandra on the banks of the Tagus. Still that same year, Sancho built the castle of Montemor-o-Novo, thus linking Évora to the mainland Portuguese territory. In that same year, the king donated the lands of Avis to the Order of Calatrava, on the condition that they build a castle there, and it was completed in 1214. After they had expired, Alfonso began to reassert his military initiative along the frontier, but the ensuing Almohad response led to the loss of the castle of Salvatierra to the Muslims in 1211. This time, however, the king of Castile was supported by the hosts of king Peter II of Aragon, king Sancho VII of Navarre in person, as well as the various religious orders and volunteers throughout Europe. The Portuguese host was composed mainly of town militias but also included Templar squadrons as well as other volunteers who joined the expedition, led by the master of the Templars in Portugal, Gomes Ramires. The final gathering was done in Toledo in May 1212 and Christian forces may have numbered about 4,000 knights and 8,000 footsoldiers total. == The definitive conquest of Alentejo, 1217–1238 ==

After the battle of Navas de Tolosa, Portuguese bishops and other authorities sought to take advantage of Almohad weakness to reconquer the Alentejo, south of the Tagus river. Muslim pirates and privateers remained active along the coast of Portugal, preying on Portuguese navigation and coastal communities, while on land border raids continued. The knights of Santiago at Palmela and other garrisons established along the frontier between the Tagus and the Sado had recurring clashes with the Muslims of Alcácer do Sal in particular. Alcácer do Sal was the main Muslim naval base on the western coast of the peninsula and the main threat to Lisbon ever since the Almohads had retaken the city in 1191. Its governor in 1217 was ʿAbdallāh ibn Muḥammad ibn Sidray ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Wazīr al-Qaysī, who had succeeded his father in 1212. He launched regular raids by land and sea against Portugal. He was able to remit an annual tribute of 100 Christian captives to the Almohad caliph in Morocco. . The initiative to conquer Alcácer do Sal came from the Bishop of Lisbon D. Soeiro Viegas, who called for a crusade throughout the kingdom, invested his own financial resources in it and obtained the collaboration of both the bishop of Évora, the abbot of Alcobaça, the military Orders and Flemish, Saxon, and Frisian crusaders whose fleet had arrived at Lisbon, on the way to Palestine. Portuguese conquest of the lower Alentejo, 1225-1238 Civil-war broke out between the Almohads in 1224 as that year the governor of Murcia Abdallah al-Adil proclaimed himself Caliph. He was able to take over most of the Andalus and seize Seville. Al-Adils coup fatally destabilized the Almohad regime and against a background of growing crisis of plague, famine, Christian advance in Iberia and Marinid revolt in Morocco, recovery would henceforth prove impossible. With Almohad power weakened by civil conflict, the Portuguese, Castilians and Leonese began launching raids into the Andalus almost unchecked. The region of Seville was once again invaded by Portuguese knights in 1225. While the Almohad governor of Seville refused to meet the Portuguese in battle, the residents of Seville spontaneously armed themselves and took to the field, but they were massacred not far from the city walls. Later that same year, King Sancho II installed garrisons in both cities. The conquest of inner Alentejo followed with the capture of Arronches, Mértola and Alfajar da Pena in 1238. == The definitive conquest of Algarve, 1238–1249 ==

In the same year that Mértola was captured, Portuguese forces proceeded into the territory of Algarve and captured Alcoutim, along with Ayamonte, east of the Guadiana River, taken by Sancho II with a fleet. The mountain ranges of Algarve constituted a serious obstacle to the march of the Portuguese hosts to the south and southwest. The commander of the knights of Santiago in Portugal Paio Peres Correia managed to cross them in 1238 still with the support of Garcia Rodrigues, a knight who knew their pathways well due to his previous occupation as a merchant, which allowed the knights of Santiago to bypass the main Muslim castles that they guarded the mountain paths, marching by night and camping by day, hidden in the valleys. Afonso III crossed the mountains of Algarve in the first weeks of March through Almodôvar, at the head of his royal host. He was accompanied by his main supporters during the civil war, first among them Dom João de Aboim, but also the heads of the military Orders, such as the master of the Order of Calatrava in Portugal, Dom Lourenço Afonso, and the experienced grandmaster Paio Peres Correia at the head of the knights of Santiago. The important port city of Faro was sieged first. Expecting reinforcements from North Africa, the qaid of Faro Alboambre mounted some resistance but once the Portuguese fleet sailed up the river and blocked the port, the city surrendered, thus avoiding pointless bloodshed and ensuring its inhabitants a favorable status under Portuguese authority. Once Faro was captured, Loulé surrendered after little resistance. Porches and Albufeira surrendered to the Dom Lourenço Afonso. Aljezur, the last town in the Algarve still in Muslim hands, was finally taken on one morning by grandmaster Paio Peres Correia. == Aftermath ==

Upon completing the conquest of Algarve, king Afonso III adopted the title "King of Portugal and Algarve", created by king Sancho when he first conquered Silves, 60 years earlier. As Ibn Mahfuz had declared himself a vassal of Castile, king Ferdinand III considered the Algarve to belong to him. This caused a diplomatic crisis and even war between Afonso and Ferdinand, who invaded the Algarve. Only when the Treaty of Badajoz was signed in 1267 did Ferdinand acknowledge the rights of Afonso over the territory and the border was established at the Guadiana River. Official Portuguese participation in the Reconquista came to an end and so did the opportunity to gain territory and spoils, hence many knights and warriors crossed the border to find service under the kings of Leon and Castile as adventurers or mercenaries. The vast swaths of land captured in the south by the Knights of Santiago, the Templars, Hospitallers and Knights of Calatrava collectively made the military Orders easily the greatest territorial beneficiaries of the Portuguese Reconquest. For their service in the wars against the Muslims, the commoners were rewarded by king Afonso III with representation in the cortes, which in 1254 gathered for the first time not just nobility and clergy but commoners as well. The end of the Reconquista in Iberia did not mean the end of hostilities with foreign Muslim powers. Berber pirates and Muslim privateers from north-Africa remained active and often attacked Portuguese shores and shipping for centuries after 1249. In 1340 the Marinid sultan of Morocco Abu Hasan Ali invaded mainland Iberia with a large army in cooperation with the emir of Granada Yusuf I, however they were repulsed by a joint Portuguese and Castillian force at the Battle of River Salado. Despite the conquest by Christian forces, many Muslims, as well as Jews, were tolerated and continued to reside in Portuguese territory, in Muslim or Jewish quarters respectively, paying increased taxes in exchange for the privilege, under conditions similar to those that had applied to Christians in Muslim Andalus. Jews were generally protected by medieval Portuguese kings who valued their professional skills and financial know-how. It was only in the 16th century that they would be forced to convert or be expelled but there was never a systematic campaign to force Muslims or Jews to convert until then and when the final order for expulsion came few mudejáres remained. Among other things, Mudejar art remained as a testimony of Muslim presence in Portuguese territory. A large number of words of Arabic origin came into current use in Portuguese as well. Memory of the reconquista and the violent or peaceful coexistence between Christians and Muslims persisted for centuries in popular Portuguese imagination and folk tales involving Enchanted Mouras, analogous to the tales of Christian princesses that circulated among Muslims. == See also ==