Microaggression

Microaggressions are common, everyday slights and comments that relate to various aspects of one's appearance or identity such as class, gender, sex, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, mother tongue, age, body shape, disability, or religion. They are thought to spring from unconsciously held prejudices and beliefs which may be demonstrated consciously or unconsciously through daily interactions. Although these communications typically appear harmless to observers, they are considered a form of subtle or everyday discrimination, like covert racism. Today, researchers do not use the prefix "micro-" to mean the aggressions have a small impact, but instead to emphasize how subtly they take place, which can make them hard to point out. In fact, research on the impacts of repeated microaggressions towards members of minority groups suggests that microaggressions negatively affect mental health and are related to minority stress. as they are often unaware they are causing harm. Categories of microaggressions are usually called microinsults, for demeaning, rude, stereotyping or insensitive behavior; microinvalidations, for behavior that excludes or denies someone else's experiences; and microassaults, for more explicit discriminatory actions or insults. Microassaults may be an exception to the generally unconscious and subtle nature of microaggressions: some of the behaviors researchers have classified as microassault are so traumatic and overt, and perhaps frequently rooted in conscious bias, that some researchers have proposed reclassifying them outside of microaggressions. == Targeted identities ==

Microaggressions were originally studied in the context of racial discrimination in the U.S., but researchers later studied their impact on many historically and presently marginalized social groups. The taxonomies and themes documented for microaggressions are often based on the identity type that a microaggression targets. Microaggressions can also be intersectional, targeting people based on more than one aspect of their identity. One example of such subtle expressions of racism is Asian students being either pathologized or penalized as too passive or quiet. According to Sue et al., Thomas Schacht says that it is uncertain whether a behavior is due to racial bias or is a larger phenomenon that occurs regardless of identity conflict. However, Kanter and colleagues found that racial microaggressions were robustly correlated to five separate measures of bias. Microinvalidation: • Alien in own land: When people assume people of color are foreigners. • E.g.: "So where are you really from?" or "Why don't you have an accent?" • Denial of racial reality: When people emphasize that a person of color does not suffer from racial discrimination or inequality (this correlates to the idea of model minority). • Invisibility: Asian-Americans are considered invisible or outside discussions of race and racism. • E.g.: Discussions on race in the United States excluding Asian-Americans by focusing only on 'white and black' issues. • Refusal to acknowledge intra-ethnic differences: When a speaker ignores intra-ethnic differences and assumes a broad homogeneity over multiple ethnic groups. • E.g.: Descriptions such as "all Asian-Americans look alike", or assumptions that all members of an ethnic minority speak the same language or have the same cultural values. Microinsult: • Pathologizing cultural values/communication styles: When Asian American culture and values are viewed as less desirable. • E.g.: Viewing the valuation of silence (a cultural norm present in some Asian communities) as a fault, leading to disadvantages caused by the expectation of verbal participation common in many Western academic settings. • Second-class citizenship: When minorities are treated as lesser human beings, or are not treated with equal rights or priority. • E.g.: A Korean man asking for a drink in a bar being ignored by the bartender, or the bartender choosing to serve a white man before serving the Korean man. • Ascription of intelligence: When people of color are stereotyped to have a certain level of intelligence based on their race. • E.g.: "You people always do well in school", or "If I see a lot of Asian students in my class, I know it's going to be a hard class". • Exoticization of non-white women: When non-white women are stereotyped as being in the "exotic" category based on gender, appearance, and media expectations. • E.g.: Descriptions of an Asian-American woman as a 'Dragon Lady', 'Tiger mother', or 'Lotus Blossom', or using symbols associated with Eastern cultures. In a 2017 peer-reviewed review of the literature, Scott Lilienfeld critiqued microaggression research for hardly having advanced beyond taxonomies such as the above, which was proposed by Sue nearly ten years earlier. While acknowledging the reality of "subtle slights and insults directed toward minorities", Lilienfeld concluded that the concept and programs for its scientific assessment are "far too underdeveloped on the conceptual and methodological fronts to warrant real-world application". Nagai said that critical race theory influences microaggression theory and that researchers "reject the methodology and standards of modern science." Gender Gender microaggressions may replace more blatant forms of sexism and gender discrimination when a society evolves sufficiently for those forms of outright prejudice to be deemed no longer acceptable. Women encounter microaggressions in which they are made to feel inferior, sexually objectified, and bound to restrictive gender roles, both in the workplace and in academia, as well as in athletics. Microaggressions against sexual and gender minority people and cisgender women share many common themes. Influential early studies on gender microaggressions documented common themes across incidents. Researchers continue to draw out further themes for classifying gender microaggressions, like expectations for people's appearances. Microaggressions based on gender are applied to female athletes when their abilities are compared only to men, when they are judged on "attractiveness", and when they are restricted to "feminine" or sexually attractive attire during competition. Microaggressions specifically targeting transgender, non-binary, and gender-nonconforming people are documented in a growing body of studies, usually involving interviews with transgender people about their experiences. One 2012 study documented a set of themes that commonly occur in these microaggressions: the use of transphobic or misgendering language, threatening or harassing behaviors, assuming a stereotypical trans experience, exoticizing, pathologizing, or disapproving of trans people, assuming roles based on the gender binary, denying that transphobia exists or denying one's own transphobic actions, and invading bodily privacy. One theme centers around family settings, where family members may refuse to use a trans person's pronouns or the name that aligns with their gender identity. A 2014 study noted another theme among microaggressions towards trans people, where the perpetrator questions the legitimacy of a gender identity or invalidates the target's specific gender identity. Some studies suggest that the microaggressions a trans person experiences from their friends tend to vary depending on the sexuality and gender identity of their friend. Microaggressions coming from trans friends may involve invalidating someone's trans identity or questioning their authenticity as a trans person, and these may be the most distressing microaggressions because of the similar identity of the friend. Microaggressions coming from queer friends who aren't trans may feel disappointing because the friend is in a relatedly marginalized group but still committed the behavior. Microaggressions from straight cisgender friends often follow the set of general themes of microaggressions towards trans people, and these occur much more frequently than microaggressions from queer friends. Sexuality and sexual orientation Microaggressions about sexual orientation can be rooted in heterosexist language and heteronormativity; stereotyping, deriding, undersexualizing or exoticizing the LGBTQ experience; or denying that heterosexism exists. Documented sources of systemic microaggressions include the media, religious groups, governments and educational organizations. Systemic microaggressions can involve negative, discriminatory portrayals and policies that target people who aren't straight, or queer people more broadly. In some studies, researchers found that microaggressions affected queer targets' self-acceptance and self-esteem, increasing the potential for anxiety, stress, and PTSD symptoms. Microaggressions towards LGBTQ people are likely to cause less distress when the target has high levels of self-acceptance. K. L. Nadal and M. J. Corpus documented some microaggressions against LGBTQ people in a pair of 2013 studies. Example microassaults (explicit insults) include using heterosexist language, like saying "that's so gay" as a put-down. Microinsults (subtly rude messaging) include comments rooted in stereotypes. As an example, a joke that a gay man couldn't like sports implies that all gay men are feminine, or a comment that a woman is too pretty to be lesbian implies that all lesbians are masculine. An example microinvalidation (denial of someone's reality) might happen after a queer person speaks up about a time they felt discriminated against, if someone then replies that the perception is unfounded or ridiculous and thus downplays transphobia or heterosexism. Bisexual people, and especially bisexual men, have not received much individualized attention by researchers, and this can be understood as a systemic microaggression. In a 2013 study, most microaggressions bisexual people report are similar to those reported by gay and lesbian respondents, although bisexual people tended to face less sexuality-based stereotyping over what skills they were good at. On the other hand, bisexual people more frequently experienced microaggressions which treated them as if they were mostly straight or had never come out, and this added to people's negative internal beliefs and confusion over their identity. Some LGBTQ individuals report receiving expressions of microaggression from people even within the LGBTQ community. Queer, trans, and gender-nonconforming people face an increased likelihood of experiencing microaggressions. Microaggressions faced by queer or trans folks can result in the scrutinization, exoticization, sexualization, fetishization, and further discrimination of this population. These microaggressions maintain “cis-sexism” and the perception that queer and trans folks are inferior or less authentic than cisgendered people. This may be a result of active, conventional, and harmful ways of thinking about gender and sexuality on a binary scale rather than as a spectrum. Intersectionality People who are members of overlapping marginal groups (e.g., a gay Asian American man or a gender-nonconforming trans woman) experience microaggressions based in correspondingly varied forms of marginalization. Research on intersectionality highlights that overlapping identities such as race, gender, and ability can shape distinct microaggression experiences that are not reducible to any single category. For example, in one study Asian American women reported feeling they were classified as sexually exotic by majority-culture men or were viewed by them as potential trophy wives simply because of their group membership. African American women report microaggressions related to characteristics of their hair, which may include invasion of personal space as an individual tries to touch it, or comments that a style that is different from that of a European American woman looks "unprofessional". People with mental illnesses People with mental illness report receiving more overt forms of microaggression than subtle ones, coming from family and friends as well as from authority figures. In a study involving college students and adults who were being treated in community care, five themes were identified: invalidation, assumption of inferiority, fear of mental illness, shaming of mental illness, and being treated as a second-class citizen. Invalidation would occur, for example, when friends and family members minimized mental health symptoms; one participant described others claiming "You can't be depressed, you're smiling." Like others with marginalized identities, microaggressions toward individuals with disabilities may manifest as a microassault, a microinsult, or a microinvalidation, all of which may also be executed as an environmental microaggression. The researchers illustrated examples of real-life ableist microaggressions in the context of microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations faced by their sample, specifically in the workplace. Meta-analytic findings show that frequent exposure to microaggressions is associated with reduced psychological well-being, increased stress, and poorer job outcomes among individuals with marginalized identities. People with physical disabilities also face microaggressions, such as • the misconception that those with disabilities want or require correction • asking inappropriate questions Ageism and intolerance Microaggression can target and marginalize any definable group, including those who share an age grouping or belief system. Age-based microaggressions, or ageism, include subtle comments or behaviors that convey stereotypes about competence, adaptability, or relevance. Recent studies highlight how these microaggressions may affect both younger and older adults, leading to decreased belonging and heightened stress. Microaggression is a manifestation of bullying that employs microlinguistic power plays in order to marginalize any target with a subtle manifestation of intolerance by signifying the concept of "other". == Perpetrators ==

Because microaggressions are subtle and perpetrators may be unaware of the harm they cause, the recipients often experience attributional ambiguity, which may lead them to dismiss the event and blame themselves as overly sensitive to the encounter. If challenged by the minority person or an observer, perpetrators will often defend their microaggression as a misunderstanding, a joke, or something small that should not be blown out of proportion. Media Members of marginalized groups have also described microaggressions committed by performers or artists associated with various forms of media, such as television, film, photography, music, and books. Some researchers believe that such cultural content reflects but also molds society, allowing for unintentional bias to be absorbed by individuals based on their media consumption, as if it were expressed by someone with whom they had an encounter. A study of racism in TV commercials describes microaggressions as gaining a cumulative weight, leading to inevitable clashes between races due to subtleties in the content. start their analysis of microaggressions with an anecdote about Mexican "bandits" as portrayed in a children's book read at bedtime. The article gives examples of negative stereotypes of Mexicans and Latinos in books, print, and photos, associating them with the state of racial discourse within majority culture and its dominance over minority groups in the US. The personification of these attitudes through media can also be applied to microaggressive behaviors towards other marginalized groups. A 2015 review of the portrayal of LGBT characters in film says that gay or lesbian characters are presented in "offensive" ways. In contrast, LGBT characters portrayed as complex characters who are more than a cipher for their sexual orientation or identity are a step in the right direction. Ideally, "queer film audiences finally have a narrative pleasure that has been afforded to straight viewers since the dawn of film noir: a central character who is highly problematical, but fascinating." == Effects ==

A 2013 scholarly review of the literature on microaggressions concluded that "the negative impact of racial microaggressions on psychological and physical health is beginning to be documented; however, these studies have been largely correlational and based on recall and self-report, making it difficult to determine whether racial microaggressions actually cause negative health outcomes and, if so, through what mechanisms". A 2017 review of microaggression research argued that as scholars try to understand the possible harm caused by microaggressions, they have not conducted much cognitive or behavioral research, nor much experimental testing, and they have overly relied on small collections of anecdotal testimonies from samples who are not representative of any particular population. but the response was criticized for failing to address the findings of the systematic reviews and continuing to draw causal inferences from correlational data. A 2022 meta-analysis concluded that experienced microaggressions were associated with worse psychological and physical health, more use of coping mechanisms, and negative job impacts, across a broad range of environments and types of people. These associations demonstrate correlation but cannot prove a causal relationship between microaggressions and negative effects. Recipients of microaggressions may feel anger, frustration, or exhaustion. African Americans have reported feeling under pressure to "represent" their group or to suppress their own cultural expression and "act white". Over time, the cumulative effect of microaggressions is thought by some to lead to diminished self-confidence and a poor self-image for individuals, and potentially also to such mental-health problems as depression, anxiety, and trauma. Many researchers have argued that microaggressions are more damaging than overt expressions of bigotry precisely because they are small and therefore often ignored or downplayed, leading the victim to feel self-doubt for noticing or reacting to the encounter, rather than justifiable anger, and isolation rather than support from others about such incidents. Studies have found that in the U.S. when people of color perceived microaggressions from mental health professionals, client satisfaction with therapy is lower. Some studies suggest that microaggressions represent enough of a burden that some people of color may fear, distrust, and/or avoid relationships with white people in order to evade such interaction. An ethnographic study of transgender people in healthcare settings observed that participants sometimes responded to microaggressions by leaving a hospital in the middle of treatment, and never returning to a formal healthcare setting again. ==Criticism==

Public discourse and harm to speakers Kenneth R. Thomas wrote in American Psychologist that recommendations inspired by microaggression theory, if "implemented, could have a chilling effect on free speech and on the willingness of White people, including some psychologists, to interact with people of color." The concept of microaggressions has been described as a symptom of the breakdown in civil discourse, and that microaggressions are "yesterday's well-meaning faux pas". One suggested type of microaggression by an Oxford University newsletter was avoiding eye contact or not speaking directly to people. This spurred a controversy in 2017 when it was pointed out that such assumptions are insensitive to autistic people who may have trouble making eye contact. In a 2019 journal article, Scott Lilienfeld, who is a critic of microaggression theory, titled a section: "The Search for Common Ground." Lilienfeld agrees that "a discussion of microaggressions, however we choose to conceptualize them, may indeed have a place on college campuses and businesses." Culture of victimhood In their article "Microaggression and Moral Cultures", sociologists Bradley Campbell and Jason Manning Similarly, the linguist and social commentator John McWhorter says that "it infantilizes black people to be taught that microaggressions, and even ones a tad more macro, hold us back, permanently damage our psychology, or render us exempt from genuine competition." McWhorter does not disagree that microaggressions exist. However, he worries that too much societal focus on microaggressions will cause other problems and has stated that the term should be confined to "when people belittle us on the basis of stereotypes." Emotional distress In The Atlantic, Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt expressed concern that the focus on microaggressions can cause more emotional trauma than the experience of the microaggressions at the time of occurrence. They believe that self-policing by an individual of thoughts or actions in order to avoid committing microaggressions may cause emotional harm as a person seeks to avoid becoming a microaggressor, as such extreme self-policing may share some characteristics of pathological thinking. Referring especially to prevention programs at schools or universities, they say that the element of protectiveness, of which identifying microaggression allegations are a part, prepares students "poorly for professional life, which often demands intellectual engagement with people and ideas one might find uncongenial or wrong". Political correctness According to Derald Wing Sue, whose works popularized the term, many critiques are based on the term being misunderstood or misused. He said that his purpose in identifying such comments or actions was to educate people and not to silence or shame them. He further notes that, for instance, identifying that someone has used racial microaggressions is not intended to imply that they are racist. Mind reading According to Lilienfeld, a possible harmful effect of microaggression programs is to increase an individual's tendency to over-interpret the words of others in a negative way. Lilienfeld refers to this as mind reading, "in which individuals assume—without attempts at verification—that others are reacting negatively to them.... For example, Sue et al...regarded the question 'Where were you born?' directed at Asian Americans as a microaggression." ==In popular culture==

Microaggression has been mentioned in popular culture since it was coined. In 2016, American academic Fobazi Ettarh created Killing Me Softly: A Game About Microaggressions, an open-access video game which allows players to navigate through the life of a character who experiences microaggression. == See also ==