In 1978
Edward Said, a
Palestinian American professor of
comparative literature at
Columbia University, published his book
Orientalism, in which he accused earlier scholars of a "subtle and persistent
Eurocentric prejudice against
Arab-Islamic peoples and their culture", claiming the bias amounted to a justification for
imperialism. Western academics such as
Irwin challenged Said's conclusions, however the book became a standard text of
literary theory and
cultural studies. Following the
September 11 attacks, U.S. Middle Eastern studies programs were criticized as inattentive to issues of
Islamic terrorism. Israeli-American historian
Martin Kramer published a 2001 book,
Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, and
Wall Street Journal article claiming that Middle Eastern studies courses were "part of the problem, not its remedy." In a
Foreign Affairs review of the book,
F. Gregory Gause said his analysis was, in part, "serious and substantive" but "far too often his valid points are overshadowed by academic score-settling and major inconsistencies." In 2002,
American writer
Daniel Pipes established an organisation called
Campus Watch to combat what he perceived to be serious problems within the discipline, including "analytical failures, the mixing of politics with scholarship, intolerance of alternative views, apologetics, and the abuse of power over students". He encouraged students to advise the organization of problems at their campuses. In turn critics within the discipline such as
John Esposito accused him of "
McCarthyism". Professors denounced by Pipes as "left-wing extremists" were often harassed with hate speech. Pipes was appointed to the
United States Institute of Peace board of directors by
George W. Bush, despite protests from the
Arab American community. ==Academic centers==