Having breathed a sigh of relief with the
Treaty of Kütahya in May 1833, the Ottoman Empire decided to launch a campaign in Kurdistan to suppress the Mir Muhammad rebellion and put an end to the autonomous
Kurdish principalities. By early 1835, the Ottoman authorities had begun preparations for a military campaign against the Soran Emirate. In response, Mir Muhammad concentrated his forces near Mosul. According to Ottoman archival reports, in February 1835 he positioned approximately 10,000 soldiers in the district of Navgir, located about four hours from Mosul, in anticipation of an Ottoman advance. Mir Muhammad's expansion into neighboring territories also alarmed several local Kurdish elites. Notables from Amadiya sent a petition to the Sivas governor Reşid Mehmed Pasha, declaring their loyalty to the Ottoman Sultan and complaining about what they described as the oppression of Mir Muhammad. The petition bore the seals of thirty-three prominent figures, including tribal leaders, aghas, and religious authorities from Amadiya, Zakho, and Akre. In response, Reşid Mehmed Pasha wrote a letter dated 31 March 1835 to the Amadiya notables. Reşid Mehmed Pasha concluded his letter by stating that those who remained loyal to the Ottoman state would be rewarded, and he directed the Amadiya notables to bring their complaints before the
governor of Baghdad. Mir Muhammad’s expansion did not only alarm the elites of Amadiya. After the territories of Cizre and
Bohtan had largely come under the authority of
Seyfeddin Bey, the rulers of nearby districts such as Şirvan and Garzan also became concerned that Mir Muhammad’s campaigns might threaten their own domains. Unable to stop the advance of the Rawanduz emir directly, Ottoman authorities attempted to strengthen relations with regional leaders in order to limit the further spread of his influence. In this context, the ruler of Şirvan, Said Bey, sent a letter in Arabic to Reşid Mehmed Pasha, stating that Mir Muhammad had occupied
Cizre but that the local rulers had not submitted to him and had remained in their positions. The Rawanduz affair also created tensions between the Ottoman provincial authorities. The governors of Sivas and Baghdad both became involved in the question of how to deal with Mir Muhammad. The governor of Baghdad argued that the problem could be resolved under his authority and expressed discomfort with the intervention of the Sivas governor. The situation was complicated by the fact that Mir Muhammad’s campaigns extended into territories belonging to both administrations. While regions such as Soran, Baban and Behdinan were considered part of the Baghdad province, districts including
Cizre,
Bohtan,
Garzan and
Şirvan fell under the jurisdiction of the Sivas governorship. As a result, correspondence from both provinces was brought before the imperial council (Meclis-i Şura) for discussion. Ultimately, the opinion of the Baghdad governor prevailed. Responsibility for the campaign was entrusted to the governor of Mosul, Mehmed Pasha, and the forces assembled under Reşid Mehmed Pasha were ordered to proceed to Mosul before advancing against the Rawanduz emir. In July 1835, Mir Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz continued his efforts to expand his influence by encouraging tribal uprisings in the regions of Mardin, Cizre, and Bohtan. It is reported that the tribes of Mardin appealed to Rawanduz for assistance against Reşid Mehmed Pasha, prompting Reşid Pasha to march into the region and suppress the uprising after heavy clashes, during which 200 rebels were reportedly killed. Reşid Mehmed Pasha provided the following information regarding the Garzan campaign in a report dated 1 November 1835: According to Reşid Mehmed Pasha’s report, Ottoman forces from Muş and Diyarbakır were deployed against the Garzan tribes after renewed resistance in the region. Approximately three thousand cavalry under the Muş mutasarrıfı Emin Pasha and around four thousand infantry and cavalry units from the Diyarbakır region participated in the campaign. The Ottoman troops advanced in two columns and several engagements took place, during which a number of villages were attacked and brought under control. Following these clashes, the local groups reportedly sought terms and hostages were taken as guarantees, temporarily bringing the conflict in the region to an end. Reşid Mehmed Pasha warned that the revolt of Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt had begun to affect the political situation in Iraq and Kurdistan. According to the report, Mehmed Ali Pasha, whose intention was to seize Baghdad, had gathered his forces in Aleppo and occupied the area known as Dir, located approximately seventy to eighty hours from Baghdad. Although Reşid Pasha considered a direct Egyptian advance on Baghdad unlikely, he noted that the situation could still encourage unrest in the region. When news arrived that Ibrahim Pasha was preparing to march toward Urfa, Reşid Pasha was forced to end his campaign against the Yazidi groups and move toward Urfa. . In the spring of 1836, Reşid Mehmed Pasha began preparations for a campaign against
Cizre, which remained under the control of
Mir Seyfeddin, a local ruler aligned with the Rawanduz emir. Before advancing on the city, Ottoman forces carried out operations in the
Diyarbakır region and subdued several local leaders, including the Zerkî beys Recep, Timur, and Hüseyin in the
Silvan area. Ottoman forces subsequently marched on Cizre and succeededd in capturing the city from Mir Seyfeddin, who had been acting in alliance with the Rawanduz emir. In letters sent by Reşid Pasha’s sons, Mir Muhammad of Rawanduz was informed that Cizre had been taken by Ottoman forces. The rulers of Cizre belonged to the Azizi family, who, according to the
Şerefname, claimed descent from the famous Islamic commander
Khalid ibn al-Walid. For this reason they were often referred to among Kurdish groups as the “Halidi” lineage. At the time Cizre was under the authority of the Rawanduz emir, its ruler was
Seyfeddin Bey, known among Kurds as
Mir Sevdin. Following the capture of
Cizre by Ottoman forces, Seyfeddin Bey fled and sought refuge with the governor of Baghdad,
Ali Pasha. In his absence,
Reşid Mehmed Pasha appointed his relative Bedir Khan Bey as the Ottoman governor (mütesellim) of Cizre. In the following years Bedir Khan, supported by the trust of Reşid and later
Hafiz Pasha, would gradually emerge as one of the most powerful Kurdish rulers in the region. Although Seyfeddin Bey was later pardoned and allowed to return to Cizre, he was unable to reclaim his former authority. During the later conflicts in the region, particularly those involving Mir Muhammad, Bedir Khan Bey continued to exercise power in Cizre and at times acted as Seyfeddin’s deputy when the latter was absent from the city. According to historian
Wadie Jwaideh, a decisive blow to Mir Muhammad’s authority came when his own religious advisor, Molla Muhammad Xati, issued a
fatwa declaring that anyone who fought against the army of the Caliph was an infidel and that their wives were no longer lawful to them. This ruling deeply demoralized his forces and contributed to his eventual surrender. The
Ottomans also offered him assurances of protection and status in case of capitulation, further encouraging his decision. (left) advises Hafiz Mehmed Pasha Following the death of
Reşid Mehmed Pasha from cholera in 1836, he was succeeded by
Hafiz Mehmed Pasha, a well-educated officer with a dual mission: to continue suppressing unrest in Kurdistan and to monitor the forces of
Muhammad Ali Pasha stationed in Syria. Upon assuming command, Hafiz Mehmed Pasha intensified Ottoman military operations in the region.
Several Kurdish leaders including those from
Rawanduz and surrounding districts such as
Sinjar,
Akçadağ, and Alacadağ continued to resist for a time, but were eventually subdued through sustained campaigns. Contemporary accounts report that roughly 15,000 people were killed or wounded during these operations, including both rebels and civilians living under their administration. Around 4,000
non-combatants, among them women, children, and the elderly, were taken captive, and an estimated 6,000 families were forcibly resettled near
Diyarbakır.
Ottoman commanders offered monetary rewards for proof of slain rebels, reportedly paying 200
kuruş for a severed
head and 100 kuruş for a severed
hand or
foot, further illustrating the severity of the
campaign. Despite this, Hafiz Pasha maintained an outwardly courteous attitude toward European observers and frequently attended military band performances of European compositions. In the summer of 1837, during a harsh military campaign against the
Yazidis in the Sinjar region, Hafiz Pasha also dispatched Mehmet Hamdi Pasha to advance on
Cizre. Facing pressure,
Bedir Khan Beg chose not to resist and declared loyalty to the Ottoman state. As a result, he was appointed as the provincial governor of the
Bohtan Emirate centered in Cizre. Later that year,
Hafiz Mehmed Pasha launched further violent operations against the Yazidis of
Sinjar and
Tel Afar, resulting in heavy casualties. In May 1838, with the support of Bedir Khan, he seized the fortified castle of Gurkel from local chief Said Bey of Hacıbehram. In the following months (June–July 1838), the Yazidi populations of the
Garzan region were also subdued by Ottoman forces. These campaigns not only aimed to crush local resistance, but also to preempt potential Kurdish uprisings in the event of a future confrontation with
Muhammad Ali of Egypt. == Aftermath ==