Separation of isotopes by laser excitation

Development of various molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS) variants began in the 1970s. The key physical process in all of them is an infrared laser, which vibrationally excites only one of the isotopes in gaseous uranium hexafluoride. This requires a wavelength near 16 μm. Traditional MLIS then continued to excite the molecules unto dissociation, at which point they crystallized as uranium-235 pentafluoride. After initial euphoria, laser isotope separation research was mostly abandoned during the 1990s, mainly because it still required extensive and uncertain research and development work, while gas centrifuges had reached technological maturity. However, Australia continued research on the SILEX technique. In November 1996, Silex Systems Limited licensed its technology exclusively to United States Enrichment Corporation (USEC) for uranium enrichment. In 1999, the United States and Australia signed an international treaty for cooperative SILEX research and development. However, in 2003 USEC backed out from the project. Silex Systems concluded the second stage of testing in 2005 and began its Test Loop Program. In 2007, Silex Systems signed an exclusive commercialization and licensing agreement with General Electric Corporation (GE), transferring their test loop to GE's facility in Wilmington, North Carolina. That year, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy (GEH) signed letters of intent for uranium enrichment services with Exelon and Entergy - the two largest nuclear power utilities in the USA. In 2008, GEH spun off Global Laser Enrichment (GLE) to commercialise the SILEX Technology and announced the first potential commercial uranium enrichment facility using the Silex process. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) approved a license amendment allowing GLE to operate the Test Loop. Also in 2008, Cameco Corporation, Canada, the world's largest uranium producer, joined GE and Hitachi as a part owner of GLE. In 2010, concerns were raised that the SILEX process poses a threat to global nuclear security. Between 2011 and 2012, GLE applied for and received a permit to build a commercial enrichment plant at Wilmington. The plant would enrich uranium to 8% 235U, the upper end of low-enriched uranium. In 2014, both GLE and Silex Systems restructured, with Silex halving its workforce. In 2016, the United States Department of Energy agreed to sell about 300,000 tonnes of depleted uranium hexafluoride to GLE for re-enrichment (from 0.35 to 0.7 % 235U) using the SILEX process over 40 years at a proposed Paducah, Kentucky Laser Enrichment Facility. In 2018, Silex Systems abandoned its plans for GLE, intending to repatriate the SILEX technology to Australia. In 2021, Silex Systems took majority ownership (51%) of GLE, with Cameco (49%) as minority owner. Under an agreement between GLE and the US Department of Energy, GLE will re-enrich to natural levels several hundred kilotons of depleted uranium tailings from the last enrichment plant to use gaseous diffusion. That plant operated in Paducah until 2013, and GLE plans to build their new plant on the same spot. ==Process==

. The excited component moves away from the axis of the molecular beam faster than the unexcited tailings stream which is separated at a skimmer. The shortest-wavelength fundamental vibration of gaseous UF6 is around 16 μm. At room temperature its width (around 20 cm−1) is much larger than the isotopic shift (0.6 cm−1). The broadening is due to thermally populated excited vibrational and rotational states. To allow for selective excitation, the UF6, diluted about 100 fold by a carrier gas (which can be argon or nitrogen), is cooled to about 80 K by adiabatic expansion through a nozzle into vacuum. Initially there are still collisions (which are necessary for cooling). But after traveling about 10 nozzle diameters, due to the expansion, they are so rare that condensation can no longer take place. Avoiding collisions is also necessary to suppress any collisional transfer of energy between the isotopes. Such a molecular beam method is used in all cases, where spectral narrowing is needed for selective excitation. With SILEX, the pressure and nozzle diameter are chosen large enough to provide a sufficient number of collisions immediately after the nozzle, to allow for formation of clusters (UF6•G) with the carrier gas G. (UF6•UF6 clusters are practically not formed due to the much lower density of UF6 compared to G.) If 235UF6 is selectively excited at 628.3 cm−1, then this molecule does not aggregate with G, whereas the nonexcited heavier 238UF6 does. Due to their higher thermal velocity, the free molecules leave the axis of the molecular beam faster than the clusters. The latter are therefore enriched in the part transmitted by a skimmer nozzle downstream, whereas the non-transmitted fraction is enriched in the 235UF6. The enrichment factor is the better, the larger the transmitted fraction (i.e. the smaller the depletion and the smaller the cut). That is, SILEX uses a separation nozzle, modified by a laser and profiting from selective repression of cluster formation ("condensation"). For that, the CO2 laser needs at least 20 MW. With a Raman shift of 354.3 cm−1 and a CO2 laser wavenumber of 982.1 cm−1 (10R30 line), one receives 627.8 cm−1. This is only close to the Q-branch of 235UF6 (center at 628.3 cm−1, width 0.01 cm−1 ) and is even closer to the Q-branch of 238UF6. GLE does not inform, how they do the necessary fine tuning. High-pressure CO2 lasers would cause additional problems with the pulse repetition rate. With common (atmospheric-pressure) CO2 lasers and with the stimulated Raman shifter the state of technology is 2–4 kHz. In order not to leave large parts of the molecular beam unirradiated, one needs at least 20 kHz (according to Urenco several tens of kHz), unless pulsed nozzles are used. The nozzles themselves must have slit form, in order to provide enough absorption length. GLE informs that they reach separation factors of 2–20, the higher values probably coupled to a poorer depletion (which is not given). This is sufficient for enrichment from natural uranium (0.72 % 235U) to reactor grade (> 3% 235U). The pioneer works of the van den Bergh group obtained only much smaller enrichments with SF6. Using other lasers with suitable wavelengths, SILEX can also be used for the isotopic enrichment of other elements such as chlorine, molybdenum, carbon and silicon. == Proliferation concerns ==

Compared to current enrichment technologies, SILEX obtains a higher enrichment. Hence fewer stages are necessary to reach weapons-grade uranium (> 90% 235U). According to GLE, each stage requires as little as 25% of the space of the conventional methods. Therefore, it could enable rogue governments to conceal facilities dedicated to the production of weapons-grade uranium. ==Security classification==

In June 2001, the U.S. Department of Energy classified "certain privately generated information concerning an innovative isotope separation process for enriching uranium". Under the Atomic Energy Act, all information not specifically declassified is classified as Restricted Data, whether it is privately or publicly held. This is in marked distinction to the national security classification executive order, which states that classification can only be assigned to information "owned by, produced by or for, or is under the control of the United States Government". This is the only known case of the Atomic Energy Act being used in such a manner. ==Popular culture==

The 1984 BBC drama Edge of Darkness features laser-based extraction of plutonium from nuclear waste. The 2014 Australian Broadcasting Corporation drama The Code uses "Laser Uranium Enrichment" as a core plot device. Protagonist Sophie Walsh states that the technology will be smaller, less energy-intensive, and more difficult to control once it is a viable alternative to current methods of enrichment. Walsh also states that the development of the technology has been protracted, and that there are significant governmental interests in maintaining the secrecy and classified status of the technology. ==See also==