Early history Little is known about the history of Möng Mao before the 13th century. Although Tai chronicles date its founding to as early is the 6th century, the differing details and dates in various local chronicles, the inclusion of mythological features, and a lack of corroborating evidence from external sources mean that these accounts are often regarded as legendary history. Many of these chronicles begin with the story of (Hkun Lung) and , who descended from heaven and established Möng Mao (or Kawsampi) in 568 (or 835 in some chronicles) and sent their children to rule over Tai chieftainships in the Nam Mao valley. Some chronicles instead begin with . Jiang Yingliang believes that the Tai developed a stratified society in the Dehong area around the 10th century, consisting of four states, Möng Mao, Möng Yang, Möng Hsen Se, and Hsenwi, and that the center of power frequently shifted between these states and they were sometimes unified into a single state named Kawsambi. Modern scholars and historians disagree on the early history, some believe that Möng Mao may have begun to emerge in the 6th century based on the legends of Hkun Lu and Hkun Lai, while others believe that there were no significant Tai polities in Yunnan and northern Myanmar before the
Mongol invasions of Burma. According to the research of Jiang Yingliang, the lineage of the rulers of Möng Mao commenced in 1256, and this may have been when the polity emerged after the fall of
Dali to the
Mongol Empire.
Connection with Ahom history The records of the
Buranji in
Tai-Ahom language tells the story of a Mao prince, Chaolung
Sukaphaa who left Möng Mao Lung with his 9000 Tai Mao followers in 1215 AD, and established the
Ahom kingdom in 1228 AD in modern day
Assam. They were identified as the Mao section of Tai and were later called the
Tai-Ahom. However, modern scholars disagree with the date of this history, and believes the founding of the Ahom kingdom should happen in the 14th century.
Relations with the Yuan dynasty During this time, a patchwork of quarrelsome Tai polities existed in the land between
Yongchang and
Tagaung. They pledged allegiance to the
Yuan dynasty as early as 1260. Multiple administrative divisions were set up in the region in 1276, and Möng Mao was designated as . From 1277–1303, the region was plagued with intense conflict and competition between the
Pagan kingdom and
Yuan dynasty. The Mongol-Yuan wanted to secure access to the
Bay of Bengal, and waged two bloody wars in the region, the
First Mongol invasion of Burma which toppled the Pagan kingdom, and the
Second Mongol invasion of Burma which drove the Mongols out. The expulsion of Burmese power in 1286 and the shrinkage of Mongol-Yuan influence after the withdrawal of troops in 1303 afforded Tai leaders with the opportunity to reorganise and expand their power, and were now able to build new polities with less outside interference. Mongol authority diminished even further in 1330 when a succession crisis erupted in the Yuan court. The conflict spread to Yunnan, and rebel princes sought the military power of local leaders in exchange for titles and rewards. The rogue nobles were eventually suppressed, but Yunnan had now increasingly come under the control of local leaders, the Prince of Liang in
Kunming and the Duan family in
Dali increasingly overshadowed the central government.
Rise Hsö Hkan Hpa (Chinese: Si Kefa) began the expansion of Möng Mao's territory in the 1330s–1340s, taking advantage of the good economic conditions and power vacuum in the region. Although chronicles disagree on the exact date of his accession to the throne, the most plausible date given is 1335. In Tai chronicles, Hsö Hkan Hpa gained the submission of neighbouring Tai states, including
Hsenwi and
Möng Mit, then gathered a large army to march against the governor of Yunnan. The Yuan court ordered local Yunnan authorities to subdue him and four military expeditions were sent in 1342, 1346, 1347 and 1348, but they ended in failure. Fearing further attacks, Hsö Hkan Hpa sent his son, the
heir apparent (mansan 滿三), to the Yuan court to nominally recognize their authority. With the outbreak of the
Red Turban Rebellions, there was little else the Yuan could do to subdue him, so he was appointed as the "Pingmian Pacification Commissioner", a title which recognized his control over new territories and further bolstered his prestige and legitimacy. After the war with China, Hsö Hkan Hpa turned his attention west. He sent his brother Hkun Sam Lông west to conquer
Assam, which surrendered without resistance and began paying tribute. However, believing his brother was conspiring against him, he poisoned and killed him on his return. The
Sagaing kingdom sent an expedition against Möng Mao in 1356, possibly as a response to Möng Mao's expansion into
Kale. Hsö Hkan Hpa then ordered expeditions against the Burmese kingdoms of
Sagaing and
Pinya. Shan raids were reported in 1359 and 1362, and finally the two kingdoms fell in 1364 and were completely devastated, leading to the rise of the
Ava kingdom. Hsö Hkan Hpa died in 1369. He was succeeded by his eldest son (called Hsö Pem Hpa in Tai). In 1371, the subordinate states of
Möng Yang and Kale went to war with each other. Si Bingfa ruled for 8 years and was succeeded by his son Tai Bian (Hkun Tai Pem Hpa). Tai Bian was a tyrant, and was killed by his uncle Zhao Xiaofa (Hkun Ngok Chyo Hpa) who established himself as ruler. A year later, Zhao Xiaofa was killed by bandits, and the people established his younger brother (Hsö Wan Hpa) as ruler.
Conflicts with the Ming dynasty In 1374, the newly founded
Ming dynasty sent a diplomatic mission to Burma, hoping to win over the states in the region. However, due to the roads being blocked in
Annam, the envoys were recalled. When the Ming dynasty entered Yunnan in 1380, it quickly defeated the Mongol prince
Basalawarmi and the Duan family in Dali, reaching the border of Möng Mao in 1382. Initially, Möng Mao did not submit to the Ming dynasty and the Ming court did not recognize Möng Mao's control over neighbouring areas. Si Wafa attacked the Ming garrison at Jinchi (
Baoshan) in 1382, but he was soon assassinated by one of his subordinates and (Hsö Hom Hpa) became ruler of Möng Mao in his place. In 1382, Si Lunfa decided to submit to Ming authority, and was granted the
tusi title of Pacification Commissioner of Pingmian. In August 1384 Si Lunfa sent a tribute mission to the Ming court surrendering the Yuan seal of commission. As a result he was promoted to Luchuan-Pingmian Pacification Commission with authority over military and civilian affairs. The Tai ruler in
Jingdong, E Tao, who was previously subordinate to Möng Mao, separately surrendered to the Ming court and was appointed as the "Native Prefect" of the region in 1384. Si Lunfa attacked Jingdong the following year to chastise him for his unfaithfulness, and E Tao fled for his life. A Ming expedition was sent against Si Lunfa in 1387, but they were defeated by Tai forces. The Ming believed that the Tai could not be trusted, and prepared military defenses all across the border regions, and diplomatically isolated Möng Mao. In 1388, Tai forces attacked the stockade at
Moshale, but were defeated. Further Tai attacks were made on the
Dingbian stockade, but these were also defeated. These attacks on Ming frontier outposts led to a large-scale Ming punitive expedition against Si Lunfa, resulting in another Ming victory. Si Lunfa surrendered in 1388, and was made to pay war reparations to the Ming forces.
Dao Ganmeng rebellion In 1393 Si Lunfa invaded Ava. Despite the fact that he was ultimately defeated, Ava sent an envoy to the Ming seeking their help in deterring Mong Mao aggression. Acknowledging their position, the
Hongwu Emperor sent a letter to Si Lunfa in 1396 warning him of retaliation if further acts of aggression were committed. Si Lunfa acquiesced to Ming demands. After Mong Mao stopped their military expansion, Si Lunfa began to welcome foreigners such as Buddhists and former Chinese soldiers into his people's traditional territory. Si Lunfa converted to
Buddhism and gave gifts to the Chinese for bringing with them the technology of gunpowder and cannons. This greatly angered the traditional elements in his court and in 1397 Si Lunfa was deposed by the leader of an anti-foreigner faction, Dao Ganmeng, and fled to the Ming government for protection. After reaching the Ming capital, Si Lunfa enlisted the Hongwu Emperor's aid in returning him to power. The emperor, desiring peace in the southwest, agreed to his petition and allocated 100 taels of gold, 150 taels of silver, and 500
ding of paper money to his cause. The Marquis of Xiping, Mu Chun, was assigned to provide Si Lunfa military support and retake Möng Mao. They returned to
Yunnan and stayed in
Baoshan while Mu Chun sent the commanders He Fu and Qu Neng with 5,000 troops to oust Dao Ganmeng. The expedition was met with initial success in battle, killing a Mong Mao chieftain, and routing his army, but arrived at an impasse when they failed to take a mountain stockade due to unfavorable terrain. He Fu relayed his situation to Mu Chun, who came to his aid with 500 cavalrymen, and in the midst of night advanced on the enemy position taking them by surprise. While they successfully took the stockade, Mu Chun died soon after from an illness and was replaced by He Fu, who captured Dao Ganmeng and installed Si Lunfa as ruler of Möng Mao once again in 1398. Si Lunfa died in 1399, and was succeeded by his son
Si Hangfa. The strength of Möng Mao waned, and principalities previously under its rule became independent. The Ming court took advantage of this situation by establishing 13 new states under its own rule, including
Möng Yang (Mengying),
Hsenwi, and
Möng Ting (Mengding).
Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns Si Hangfa was succeeded by his brother
Si Renfa in 1413. Under Si Renfa, Möng Mao began a period of expansion into neighbouring regions to reassert control over previously owned territory. Si Renfa expanded west into Möng Yang in 1426, and made incursions into territory north of Möng Mao as far as
Yongchang in 1428, but the Ming dynasty did not take any harsh measures against him yet. In the 1430s, conflicts between Möng Mao, Hsenwi,
Ava, and various other states in the region intensified. The Ming planned a campaign against Möng Mao in 1434, but it was abandoned when
Emperor Yingzong, an 8 year old, ascended the throne. Si Renfa continued to expand, invading
Nandian in 1437 and made further incursions into
Ganyai,
Tengchong,
Lujiang, and
Jinchi. Si Renfa appointed subordinate leaders to these neighbouring regions without asking the permission of the Ming court. At this point, the Ming considered Si Renfa unable to be reasoned with, and prepared a campaign, ordering Hsenwi to join the war against Möng Mao. The first campaign was sent in 1438. One army pursued Si Renfa deep into his own territory, and was ambushed and destroyed by Si Renfa. After his victory, he became bolder and began expanding deeper into Ming territory, marching across the
Salween river to invade places as far as and
Jingdong and
Menglian. A second campaign was sent against Möng Mao in 1441. After an eight month long stalemate, Ming forces advanced deeper into Si Renfa's territory, and his capital was besieged. Möng Mao's capital fell in 1442, and Si Renfa fled to
Möng Yang with his family. Imperial orders were given to Hsenwi and
Ava to capture Si Renfa, with territory as a reward. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese king, but the Ming hesitated to keep their promise of territory, so they did not hand him over to the Chinese. Si Renfa's son,
Si Jifa, continued operations in southwestern Yunnan and tried to beg for pardon from the Ming court for his father and himself. He was defeated in
Mangshi, but, seeing the Ming troops leave the region, he reoccupied Möng Mao and began invading neighbouring principalities again. A third campaign was sent in 1443. Möng Mao's capital was captured again in 1444, and its core region was partitioned into a new state, Möng Wan (
Longchuan), with a new ruling dynasty. Si Renfa again retreated to Möng Yang, but the Ming did not immediately pursue him as they were not sure which side Hsenwi and Ava would take. A fourth campaign was sent to oust Si Jifa in Möng Yang in 1449. Ming armies crossed the
Irrawaddy river into Möng Yang, and defeated Si Jifa's strongholds. Though Si Jifa and his brother escaped, the Ming armies considered it a victory and left the capture of Si Jifa to the Burmese. Silu, a younger son of Si Renfa, became the new leader of Möng Yang, the Ming general, realizing he could not defeat Silu and his supporters, made a peace treaty with him. A stone tablet was erected on the Irrawaddy river which marked the boundary, it stated: "Not before the stone is rotten and the river has dried up are you allowed to cross [the Irrawaddy]." Silu agreed, and the Ming troops left.
Möng Yang period Sawlon, a descendant of Möng Mao's royal family, conquered the
Ava kingdom in 1527. ==Territory and Extant==