showing
Saint Dominic with a
discipline in his hand, kneeling before a
crucifixion scene|thumb|350px
Etymology The term
mortification of the flesh comes from the
Book of Romans 8:13 in the
New Testament: "For if you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body you will live." The same idea is seen in other verses, such as Colossians 3:5 ("Put to death what is earthly in you: fornication, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry") and Galatians 5:24 ("And those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires"). Support for such behavior in the
Old Testament is found in some verses such as Proverbs 20:30: "Blows that wound cleanse away evil; strokes make clean the innermost parts." According to Christian
exegesis, "deeds of the body" and "what is earthly" refer to the "wounded nature" of man or his
concupiscence (evil inclinations as a consequence of the
Fall of Man); humanity suffers the consequences of the
original sin through temptation to sin. The Apostle Paul, who authored Romans, expected believers to "put to death" the deeds of the flesh. a word denoting the fallen or sinful elements, parts, and proclivities of humanity. This word is juxtaposed in Romans 8:13 with the term used for 'body' (), which more strictly refers to the physical body of a human. Thus in Romans 8:13, Paul draws a parallel between fallen people, with proclivities to sin without chance of redemption, and redeemed people, who are so changed that mortification of their fleshly sin can turn to bodily life, from to .
Forms of mortification In its simplest form, mortification of the flesh can mean merely denying oneself certain pleasures, such as permanently or temporarily
abstaining (i.e.
fasting), from meat,
alcoholic beverages, sexual relations, or an area of life that makes the person's spiritual life more difficult or burdensome. It can also be practiced by choosing a simple or even impoverished lifestyle; this is often one reason many
monastics of various Christian denominations take vows of poverty. Among votarists, traditional forms of physical mortification are
chain cilices and hair-shirts. In some of its more severe forms, it can mean using a
discipline to
flagellate oneself and a
spugna to beat oneself.
Purposes Mortification of the flesh is undertaken by Christians in order to repent of
sins and share in the
Passion of Jesus. Through the centuries, some Christians have practiced voluntary
penances as a way of imitating Jesus who, according to the New Testament, voluntarily accepted the sufferings of his passion and death on the cross at Calvary in order to redeem humankind. St.
Jerome, a Western church father and biblical scholar who translated the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate), was famous for his severe penances in the desert and his propagation of Christian asceticism including from his base in Palestine.
Instruments of penance in Italy mortifying the flesh with
disciplines in a seven-hour procession; penitents wear
capirote so that attention is not drawn toward themselves as they repent but rather to God. Christians practicing mortification of the flesh often use instruments of penance as they repent, with the purpose of being contrite and sharing in the suffering of Jesus. These include the following: •
Discipline, a scourge usually having seven tails (representing the seven deadly sins and seven virtues) for self-flagellation of the back • Chain
cilice, a wire chain worn around the legs to cause the penitent mild discomfort •
Spugna, a round cork containing metal studs, metal spikes, or needles that is used to beat one's chest •
Cross, which is carried in the
imitation of Christ, especially in
Lenten processions File:Christian discipline used in mortification of the flesh.jpg|
Discipline File:Christian Hairshirt.jpg|
Hairshirt File:Cilice.jpg|
Chain Cilice File:Guardia Sanframondi - spugna dei battenti.jpg|
Spugna File:Stuttgart 2009 040 (RaBoe).jpg|
Cross Denominational practices Catholicism with
battenti (beaters) mortifying the flesh with spugnas in the
Italian city of
Guardia Sanframondi Some canonized Catholic saints and founders of Catholic religious organizations practiced mortification in order to imitate
Christ. Another way of mortification that developed quickly in the early centuries was
celibacy, which the Catholic tradition interprets as renouncing the joy of human marriage for a superior chastity and higher supernatural ends (cf.
Works of Supererogation). for the sake of Christ.
Lutheranism The
Augsburg Confession of the
Lutheran Church supports the practice of mortification of the flesh, stating: In the
Lutheran tradition, mortification of the flesh is not done in order to earn
merit, but instead to "keep the body in a condition such that it does not hinder one from doing what one has been commanded to do, according to one's calling ()." In
The Ninety-Five Theses,
Martin Luther stated that "inner repentance is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the flesh." He practiced mortification of the flesh through
fasting and
self-flagellation, even sleeping in a stone cell without a blanket.
Methodism depicting a Methodist circuit rider on horseback
Samuel Wesley Sr. examined the writings of
Thomas à Kempis on the mortification of the flesh and concluded that "mortification is still an indispensable Christian duty." As such, he likewise wrote that "efforts to manifest true faith would be 'quickened' by self mortification and entire obedience". Methodist
circuit riders were known for practicing the
spiritual discipline of mortifying the flesh as they "arose well before dawn for solitary prayer; they remained on their knees
without food or drink or physical comforts sometimes for hours on end".
John Cennick, the first Methodist
itinerant preacher,
prayed nine times a day, fasted and "fancying dry bread too great an indulgence for so great a sinner as himself, he began to feed on potatoes, acorns, crabs, and grass". The Methodist
evangelist John Wesley Childs was known for "limiting what he would eat" and choosing "to walk beside his horse rather than to ride in order to demonstrate his willingness to suffer for his calling and to try[ing] to heighten his religious experience through subjecting himself to trials." The
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine in 1813 published a statement written by
Matthew Henry for Christian believers:
Other Christian viewpoints It became "quite common" for members of the
Oxford Movement within the
Anglican Communion to practice self-flagellation using a
discipline.
Congregationalist writer and leader within the
evangelical Christian movement,
Sarah Osborn, practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God". According to other evangelical Christian commentators, using Paul's writings and other passages from the New Testament to justify the practise of mortification of the flesh is a complete misinterpretation, arguing that Paul shows a very high view of Christ's redeeming work in the verses leading up to Colossians 1:24. This suffering Paul refers to comes as one takes on the commission to share the gospel. Persecution and suffering such as that experienced by Christ will follow and Christians should see this suffering as a divine necessity. In chapter 9, "Paul compares the evangelistic lifestyle of believers to athletes who sacrifice normal pursuits for the sake of strict training and a competitive edge". In the Corinth church there were grey areas of lifestyle and behaviors not specifically covered by the Mosaic law, and Paul was encouraging them to discipline themselves to abstain from those behaviors and practices for the sake of winning others to Christ. ==Analogous non-Christian concepts==