Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures. Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is misleading, since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes reduced complexity. For example, the construction of early slit drums involved felling and hollowing out large trees; later
slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks, a much simpler task. German musicologist
Curt Sachs, one of the most prominent
musicologists and
musical ethnologists in modern times, argues that it is misleading to arrange the development of musical instruments by workmanship, since cultures advance at different rates and have access to different raw materials. For example, contemporary
anthropologists comparing musical instruments from two cultures that existed at the same time but differed in organization, culture, and handicraft
cannot determine which instruments are more "primitive". Ordering instruments by geography is also not reliable, as it cannot always be determined when and how cultures contacted one another and shared knowledge. Sachs proposed that a geographical chronology until approximately 1400 is preferable, however, due to its limited subjectivity. Beyond 1400, one can follow the overall development of musical instruments over time. Among the first devices external to the human body that are considered instruments are
rattles, stampers, and various
drums. These instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing. Eventually, some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical instruments, using them for hunting and various ceremonies. Those cultures developed more complex
percussion instruments and other instruments such as ribbon reeds, flutes, and trumpets. Some of these labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day; early flutes and trumpets are so-labeled for their basic operation and function rather than resemblance to modern instruments. Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual, even sacred importance are the
Chukchi people of the
Russian Far East, the indigenous people of
Melanesia, and many cultures of
Africa. In fact, drums were pervasive throughout every African culture. One East African tribe, the
Wahinda, believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the
sultan. Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments to produce
melody, which was previously common only in singing. Similar to the process of
reduplication in language, instrument players first developed repetition and then arrangement. An early form of melody was produced by pounding two stamping tubes of slightly different sizes—one tube would produce a "clear" sound and the other would answer with a "darker" sound. Such instrument pairs also included
bullroarers, slit drums,
shell trumpets, and skin drums. Cultures who used these instrument pairs associated them with gender; the "father" was the bigger or more energetic instrument, while the "mother" was the smaller or duller instrument. Musical instruments existed in this form for thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve in the form of the earliest
xylophone. Xylophones originated in the mainland and
archipelago of
Southeast Asia, eventually spreading to Africa, the Americas, and Europe. Along with xylophones, which ranged from simple sets of three "leg bars" to carefully tuned sets of parallel bars, various cultures developed instruments such as the
ground harp,
ground zither,
musical bow, and
jaw harp. Recent research into usage wear and acoustics of stone artefacts has revealed a possible new class of prehistoric musical instrument, known as
lithophones.
Antiquity Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier. Beginning around 2000 BC,
Sumerian and
Babylonian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to
division of labor and the evolving
class system. Popular instruments, simple and playable by anyone, evolved differently from professional instruments whose development focused on effectiveness and skill. Despite this development, very few musical instruments have been recovered in
Mesopotamia. Scholars must rely on artifacts and
cuneiform texts written in
Sumerian or
Akkadian to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia. Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the words used to describe them. Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments, historians have distinguished six
idiophones used in early Mesopotamia: concussion clubs,
clappers,
sistra, bells, cymbals, and
rattles. Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of
Amenhotep III, and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far-reaching places such as
Tbilisi,
Georgia and among the
Native American Yaqui tribe. The people of Mesopotamia preferred
stringed instruments, as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines, plaques, and seals. Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted, as well as lyres and lutes, the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the
violin. ian tomb painting depicting lute players,
18th Dynasty ( BC) Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia, leading historians to conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one another. Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the Sumerian culture did not also possess. However, by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated; the lyre, a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer, did not appear in Egypt for another 800 years. Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500 BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon) entered a long violent period of war and destruction. This period saw the
Kassites destroy the
Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the
Hyksos destroy the
Middle Kingdom of Egypt. When the
Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC, the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt's musical instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures. Unlike Mesopotamia and Egypt, professional musicians did not exist in
Israel between 2000 and 1000 BC. While the history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations, the culture in Israel produced few such representations. Scholars must therefore rely on information gleaned from the
Bible and the
Talmud. The
Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with
Jubal: the
ugab (pipes) and
kinnor (lyre). Other instruments of the period included the
tof (
frame drum), ''pa'amon
(small bells or jingles), shofar, and the trumpet-like hasosra''. The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic increase in the number and variety of musical instruments. However, identifying and classifying the instruments remains a challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations. For example, stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors existed, but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them. In her book
A Survey of Musical Instruments, American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be similar to vertical harp due to its relation to
nabla, the
Phoenician term for "harp". In
Greece,
Rome, and
Etruria, the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast to those cultures' achievements in architecture and sculpture. The instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were imported from other cultures. Lyres were the principal instrument, as musicians used them to honor the gods. Greeks played a variety of
wind instruments they classified as
aulos (reeds) or
syrinx (flutes); Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique. Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the
Orient, lutes of Egyptian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played primarily by women. Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of
India is almost completely lacking, making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the
Munda and
Dravidian language-speaking cultures that first settled the area. Rather, the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the
Indus Valley civilization that emerged around 3000 BC. Various rattles and whistles found among excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical instruments. A clay statuette indicates the use of drums, and examination of the
Indus script has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts. This discovery is among many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained cultural contact. Subsequent developments in musical instruments in India occurred with the
Rigveda, or hymns. These songs used various drums, shell trumpets, harps, and flutes. Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the
snake charmer's double clarinet,
bagpipes, barrel drums, cross flutes, and short lutes. In all, India had no unique musical instruments until the
post-classical era. , BCE, from
Hubei Musical instruments such as
zithers appeared in Chinese writings around 12th century BC and earlier. Early
Chinese philosophers such as
Confucius (551–479 BC),
Mencius (372–289 BC), and
Laozi shaped the development of musical instruments in China, adopting an attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks. The Chinese believed that music was an essential part of character and community, and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments according to their material makeup. In Vietnam, an archaeological discovery of a 2,000-year old stringed instrument gives important insights on early chordophones in Southeast Asia.
Idiophones were extremely important in Chinese music, hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones. Poetry of the
Shang dynasty mentions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flutes carved from bone, the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists. The
Zhou dynasty saw percussion instruments such as
clappers, troughs,
wooden fish, and
yǔ (wooden tiger). Wind instruments such as flute,
pan-pipes,
pitch-pipes, and mouth organs also appeared in this time period. The
xiao (an
end-blown flute) and various other instruments that spread through many cultures, came into use in China during and after the
Han dynasty. discovered in
Tintignac Although civilizations in
Central America attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of producing a melody. In contrast,
pre-Columbian South American civilizations in areas such as modern-day
Peru,
Colombia,
Ecuador,
Bolivia, and
Chile were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets. An instrument that can be attested to the
Iron Age Celts is the
carnyx, which is dated to 300 BC. The end of the bell, which was crafted from bronze, was into the shape of a screaming animal head which was held high above their heads. When blown into, the carnyx would emit a deep, harsh sound; the head also had a tongue which clicked when vibrated. It is believed the intention of the instrument was to use it on the battleground to intimidate their opponents.
Post-classical era/Middle Ages During the period of time loosely referred to as the
post-classical era and Europe in particular as the
Middle Ages, China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence from other regions. The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD, when China established an orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in
Turkestan. Influences from
Middle East,
Persia,
India,
Mongolia, and other countries followed. In fact, Chinese tradition attributes many musical instruments from this period to those regions and countries. Cymbals gained popularity, along with more advanced trumpets, clarinets, pianos, oboes, flutes, drums, and lutes. Some of the first
bowed zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century, influenced by Mongolian culture. India experienced similar development to China in the post-classical era; however, stringed instruments developed differently as they accommodated different styles of music. While stringed instruments of China were designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of chimes, stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible. This flexibility suited the slides and
tremolos of Hindu music. Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of the time, as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs dating to the post-classical era. The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to Indian music. Historians divide the development of musical instruments in medieval India between pre-Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different influence each period provided. In pre-Islamic times, idiophones such as
handbells, cymbals, and peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music. The gong-like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a hammer instead of a mallet. Tubular drums, stick zithers (
veena), short fiddles, double and triple flutes, coiled trumpets, and curved India horns emerged in this time period. Islamic influences brought new types of drum, perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre-Islamic drums. Persian influence brought oboes and
sitars, although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven. The Islamic culture also introduced double-
clarinet instruments as the
Alboka (from Arab, al-buq or "horn") nowadays only alive in
Basque Country. It must be played using the technique of the circular breathing. Southeast Asian musical innovations include those during a period of Indian influence that ended around 920 AD.
Balinese and
Javanese music made use of
xylophones and
metallophones, bronze versions of the former. The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia was the gong. While the gong likely originated in the geographical area between
Tibet and
Burma, it was part of every category of human activity in
maritime Southeast Asia including
Java. The areas of Mesopotamia and the
Arabian Peninsula experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by
Islamic culture in the seventh century. Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music. Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies. Persian miniatures provide information on the development of
kettle drums in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java. Various lutes, zithers,
dulcimers, and harps spread as far as
Madagascar to the south and modern-day
Sulawesi to the east. Despite the influences of Greece and Rome, most musical instruments in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia. The lyre is the only musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this period. Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe. The central and northern regions used mainly lutes, stringed instruments with
necks, while the southern region used lyres, which featured a two-armed body and a crossbar. Lyres propagated through the same areas, as far east as
Estonia. European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated, more frequently requiring instruments capable of
polyphony. The 9th-century
Persian geographer
Ibn Khordadbeh mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that, in the
Byzantine Empire, typical instruments included the
urghun (
organ),
shilyani (probably a type of
harp or
lyre),
salandj (probably a
bagpipe) and the
lyra. The Byzantine lyra, a
bowed string instrument, is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments, including the
violin. The
monochord served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale, allowing more accurate musical arrangements. Mechanical
hurdy-gurdies allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a fiddle would; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages. Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to the sides, unlike the rear-facing pegs of Central and Northern European instruments. Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes, such as warning of the approach of a
leper. The ninth century revealed the first
bagpipes, which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments. The construction of pneumatic
organs evolved in Europe starting in fifth-century
Spain, spreading to
England in about 700. The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs. Literary accounts of organs being played in English
Benedictine abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches. Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to
oboes; no evidence of
clarinets exists during this period.
Modern Western Classical Renaissance Musical instrument development was dominated by the
Occident from 1400 on, indeed, the most profound changes occurred during the
Renaissance period. The polyphonic style dominated popular music, and the instrument makers responded accordingly. , . It shows a
violinist and a
cittern player. Beginning in about 1400, the rate of development of musical instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic sounds. People also began writing books about creating, playing, and cataloging musical instruments; the first such book was
Sebastian Virdung's 1511 treatise
Musica getuscht und ausgezogen ('Music Germanized and Abstracted'). Of the instructional books and references published in the Renaissance era, one is noted for its detailed description and depiction of all wind and stringed instruments, including their relative sizes. This book, the
Syntagma musicum by
Michael Praetorius, is now considered an authoritative reference of sixteenth-century musical instruments. In the sixteenth century, musical instrument builders gave most instruments – such as the violin – the "classical shapes" they retain today. An emphasis on aesthetic beauty also developed; listeners were as pleased with the physical appearance of an instrument as they were with its sound. Therefore, builders paid special attention to materials and workmanship, and instruments became collectibles in homes and museums. It was during this period that makers began constructing instruments of the same type in various sizes to meet the demand of
consorts, or ensembles playing works written for these groups of instruments. Instrument builders developed other features that endure today. For example, while organs with multiple keyboards and pedals already existed, the first organs with
solo stops emerged in the early fifteenth century. These stops were meant to produce a mixture of timbres, a development needed for the complexity of music of the time. Trumpets evolved into their modern form to improve portability, and players used
mutes to properly blend into
chamber music.
Baroque mounted
Jacob Stainer violin from 1658 Beginning in the seventeenth century, composers began writing works to a higher emotional degree. They felt that
polyphony better suited the emotional style they were aiming for and began writing musical parts for instruments that would complement the singing human voice. Bowed instruments such as the
violin,
viola,
baryton, and various lutes dominated popular music. Beginning in around 1750, however, the lute disappeared from musical compositions in favor of the rising popularity of the guitar. As the prevalence of
string orchestras rose, wind instruments such as the flute, oboe, and bassoon were readmitted to counteract the monotony of hearing only strings. In the mid-seventeenth century, what was known as a hunter's horn underwent a transformation into an "art instrument" consisting of a lengthened tube, a narrower bore, a wider bell, and a much wider range. The details of this transformation are unclear, but the modern
horn or, more colloquially, French horn, had emerged by 1725. The
slide trumpet appeared, a variation that includes a long-throated mouthpiece that slid in and out, allowing the player infinite adjustments in
pitch. This variation on the trumpet was unpopular due to the difficulty involved in playing it. Organs underwent tonal changes in the Baroque period, as manufacturers such as Abraham Jordan of London made the stops more expressive and added devices such as expressive pedals. Sachs viewed this trend as a "degeneration" of the general organ sound.
Classical and Romantic plays the keyboard while his father,
Leopold Mozart, plays violin. During the
Classical and
Romantic periods of music, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900, many musical instruments capable of producing new timbres and higher volume were developed and introduced into popular music. The design changes that broadened the quality of timbres allowed instruments to produce a wider variety of expression. Large orchestras rose in popularity and, in parallel, the composers determined to produce entire orchestral scores that made use of the expressive abilities of modern instruments. Since instruments were involved in collaborations of a much larger scale, their designs had to evolve to accommodate the demands of the orchestra. Some instruments also had to become louder to fill larger halls and be heard over sizable orchestras. Flutes and bowed instruments underwent many modifications and design changes—most of them unsuccessful—in efforts to increase volume. Other instruments were changed just so they could play their parts in the scores. Trumpets traditionally had a "defective" range—they were incapable of producing certain notes with precision. New instruments such as the
clarinet,
saxophone, and
tuba became fixtures in orchestras. Instruments such as the clarinet also grew into entire "families" of instruments capable of different ranges: small clarinets, normal clarinets, bass clarinets, and so on. Different regions, countries, and even instrument manufacturers preferred different standards, making orchestral collaboration a challenge. Despite even the efforts of two organized international summits attended by noted composers like
Hector Berlioz, no standard could be agreed upon.
Twentieth century to present brand
electric guitars The evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the 20th century. Instruments such as the violin, flute, french horn, and harp are largely the same as those manufactured throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Gradual iterations do emerge; for example, the "New Violin Family" began in 1964 to provide differently sized violins to expand the range of available sounds. The slowdown in development was a practical response to the concurrent slowdown in orchestra and venue size. Despite this trend in traditional instruments, the development of new musical instruments exploded in the twentieth century, and the variety of instruments developed overshadows any prior period. The vast majority produced in the first half of the 20th century were what Sachs called "electromechanical instruments"; they have mechanical parts that produce sound vibrations picked up and amplified by electrical components. Examples include
Hammond organs and
electric guitars. Modular 55 synthesizer The latter half of the 20th century saw the evolution of
synthesizers, which produce sound using circuits and
microchips. In the late 1960s,
Bob Moog and other inventors developed the first commercial synthesizers, such as the
Moog synthesizer. Whereas once they had filled rooms, synthesizers can now be embedded in any electronic device,
Samplers, introduced around 1980, allow users to
sample and reuse existing sounds, and were important to the development of
hip hop. 1982 saw the introduction of
MIDI, a
standardized means of synchronizing electronic instruments. The modern proliferation of computers and microchips has created an industry of electronic musical instruments. ==Classification==