Mutapa Empire

The Mutapa Empire was situated on the northern part of the Zimbabwean Plateau, which borders the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and valleys to the north and south respectively, the Indian Ocean in the east, and the Kalahari Desert to the west. Several rivers traverse the Plateau, including the Save, Pungwe, and Runde. The Plateau largely consists of savanna-woodland with and trees on higher ground, and and on lower ground. The Plateau is inhabited by elephants, lions, leopards, and deer, among others. == History ==

Origins and early history Shona oral tradition attributes Great Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community. Shona tradition says that some Karanga from Great Zimbabwe migrated slowly to the northern Zimbabwean Plateau. Accordingly, an elephant hunter in Shangwe named Mutota gained prominence, and took interest in trade along the Zambezi, while also finding salt in . Accordingly the Karanga made alliances and intermarried with the Tonga and Tavara, and via influencing succession disputes they increased their power in the region. Mutota is said to have been an hunter-warrior in the militaristic clan, which he led to conquer Dande. He established the capital of the nascent Mutapa Kingdom at Chitako- Hill where he built a stone enclosure (), and he distributed land and administrative positions to his allies. Mutota is said to have extended his rule over '' (a territory to the south) before his death. According to Diogo de Alcáçova's 1506 account, Changamire was an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty who Mukombero ordered to undertake a poison trial due to rumours of him seeking the kingship. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape. Relations between Mutapa and the Portuguese continued to be amicable, and in the 1580s the Portuguese established several (marketplaces) outside of the Zambezi Valley on the Zimbabwean Plateau. The most important was Masapa, and the Portuguese captain there took on one of the 's roles as "captain of the gates" of Mutapa, being subordinate to the and referred to as a 'great wife'. In 1631, having allied Muslims who Mavhura was in the process of expelling, Kapararidze's forces caught him by surprise and routed the Mavhura-Portuguese army, capturing several key figures, though not Mavhura. Kapararidze offered peace if Mavhura acknowledged him as , though Mavhura refused. Kapararidze incited Africans in the Zambezi Valley to rise up against Portuguese settlers, who fled to Tete, Sena, and the . In 1632, a Portuguese captain led an army to subdue the Valley from Quelimane to Sena, and conquered Manyika. Meanwhile, Mavhura and a Portuguese friar recruited a large army, paid for in cloth, and managed to defeat Kapararidze's forces. With the help of the , Kapararidze regrouped to face Mavhura again, though he had been reinforced by the Portuguese captain. Together they soundly defeated Kapararidze, leaving the Portuguese as the main power on the Plateau, which was maintained by exploiting divisions between Mavhura's faction and the remnants of Kapararidze's. Though missions caused some Shona to convert, they remained only nominal Christians, and the Shona traditional worldview persevered. Women were more amenable to conversion because Christianity emphasised monogamy, increasing their status. Shona religious leaders however likely rejected Mavhura, making him even more reliant on Portuguese force. In 1634, the land around Tete was divided into , which were then granted to Portuguese settlers. Over the course of the 17th century, were established as far south as Rimuka, and their holders were incorporated into Shona political systems as (provincial chiefs) who prioritised profit above all else (including allegiance to the Portuguese Crown). Despite undertaking several digging expeditions in Chikova, Shona guides proved unhelpful, and the Portuguese were unable to find any silver mines. In response to rumours Kapararidze was amassing an army north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese garrisoned Mavhura's . -holders and Portuguese traders employed private armies and raided Mutapa vassals for cattle and slaves. Gold mining in Mutapa was largely abandoned out of fear. though others such as Catrien Van Waarden and David Beach thought it to have been a dynastic name, and Van Waarden says that Changamire I may have been the founder of the lineage that produced Changamire Dombo. The system involved someone loaning their cattle to another, who was permitted to keep the cattle's product and profit from it, but not to dispose of the cattle, effectively constituting vassalage. Several short reigns followed, and the conflict spread to repel the that had encroached on Mutapa's territory during Mupunzagutu's reign. Zindove was soon defeated by Kamota (another brother) and fled to Dande to seek reinforcements, where its breakaway ruler (Dewere) killed him. Kamota feared the return of Karidza, a blind son of Dangwaranga who had reigned after João V and later fled to the Maravi. Kamota embarked on a military campaign across the Zambezi to confront Karidza, but was either killed or exiled, with Karidza's son Mutanyikwa ascending to the kingship in 1761. A year later, Mutanyikwa fled to join his father after an army led by Zezi (a brother of Zindove and Kamota) advanced on his . It was reported that by 1768 two rulers had died in civil war, possibly referring to Mutanyikwa and Zezi, and another had taken the kingship, likely to have been Ganyambadzi. Several princes rebelled against Ganyambadzi, though one attacked the Portuguese and was later captured by them. Relations between Ganyambadzi and the Portuguese soured after a prominent trader was robbed in Mutapa and rumours of a plot to capture a captain-major. The Portuguese attacked the 's (who also served as messengers) and a prince called Changara advanced on Ganyanmabzi, who fled across the Zambezi. Changara signed a 1769 treaty with the Portuguese permitting freedom of movement in Mutapa, gold mining, and the re-establishment of such as Dambarare, and he also promised them tribute. However the re-establishment of the did not materialise because trade through Zumbo, which had been experiencing a downturn, rebounded soon after. Despite the treaty, relations rapidly deteriorated the following year after a Mutapa official invaded some of the Portuguese Crown's lands and they in turn declared war on Changara; relations were however quickly mended. In 1772, after being forced to leave Undi's lands (a Maravi leader), Ganyambadzi blockaded Zumbo, but this was broken by the combined forces of Changara, the Rozvi, and the Portuguese. Ganyambadzi had likely regained the kingship sometime before 1776, but in that year Ganyambadzi retreated to Barue, where he installed a puppet ruler. Changara had reportedly fled across the Zambezi by 1780, and began trying to rebuild his power base. The holder of the Mutapa kingship remained unclear. Ganyambadzi sought Portuguese recognition as , and in 1780 the Portuguese sent a mission to his which distributed many gifts and asked Ganyambadzi to secure trade routes to Manyika in return. Despite some contact between the Portuguese and Changara, of which Ganyambadzi was deeply suspicious, peaceful relations were maintained throughout his reign, and Ganyambadzi died in 1784/5. Despite Changara's efforts, Ganyambadzi was succeeded by Bangoma, who had previously been imprisoned by the Portuguese for attacking their lands but had escaped. Around 1794, Bangoma was accused of robbing some traders, and by December that year Changara had assumed the kingship. From around 1795 to 1800, the region experienced a severe drought. Several chiefs and princes (as well as Bangoma and Matope) were rumoured to be plotting to attack Zumbo. In 1804, likely following a dispute with the Portuguese, a chief called Mburuma attacked Zumbo, causing the abandonment of its and exacerbating the downturn in Zambezian trade following the drought. By 1806, Bangoma was reported to be the (king) of Chidima, though he was supplanted by an elderly prince who was succeeded by Chifombo (son of Changara) in 1806/7. In 1807 a Portuguese general led an army in pursuit of a rogue trader, and passed through Mutapa. On their way, they passed by some villages that served as (royal graves; walking too close to such sacred sites was a criminal offence) and burned them down. The general also enslaved several people associated with the . Seeking to prevent the graves' spirits' angered proliferation of disasters in the country, Chifombo declared war on the general and, after overwhelming the Portuguese army, captured him. Despite initially asking for ransom payments, Chifombo was convinced by several princes and court members to have the general executed. Relations with the Portuguese broke down, and, other than in 1826, they ceased paying tribute or gifting presents to the until 1841. This break in relations has limited the information on the Mutapa state during this period. Little is known of Chifombo's reign, however a rivalry between two princes (Chipute and Kadeya) recorded in 1810 may indicate a succession conflict at that time, and a called "Amatua" (possibly Bangoma) was in power by 1811. Zumbo's was reopened in 1820, though PortugueseMutapa relations were only re-established in 1826. During Kandeya's reign in the 1820s the Mutapa state saw drought, famine, and civil wars. By 1830 Kandeya had been forced to abandon his by an invading prince named Dzeka, who later assumed the kingship sometime in the 1830s. During his reign the region was invaded by Nguni groups who had fled in the Mfecane, displacing local groups and disrupting all trade, however the poor conditions for cattle-keeping in Chidima and the broader Zambezi Valley prevented their settlement in Mutapa. By 1843 Kataruza was in power, and was described by David Livingstone as "a chief of no great power". Despite this, Kataruza reportedly had around one hundred wives, and Europeans still paid him in goods such as calico for safe passage through Chidima. Kataruza supported Nhaude of the against in the wars of 18531855, and his army killed many Portuguese soldiers as they retreated from Massangano. Kataruza had many minor chiefs in Chidima who he referred to as his 'sons', though they had so much autonomy such that they were practically each independent. From the 1860s onwards, the Portuguese Crown revived its power in the Valley by campaigning against and conquering the . Kataruza died in 1867 and was succeeded by his son Kandeya II, who Matope (Matope's spirit/medium) convinced to support Bonga of Massangano against the Portuguese Crown, dismantling the peaceful yet submissive relations Kataruza had maintained. The Portuguese invaded Mutapa and shot Matope dead, conquering part of Chidima and forcing Kandeya II and his forces to flee. Around 1876 Kandeya II was succeeded by Dzuda (likely a son of Dzeka). Dzuda's army reportedly hassled Zumbo's traders, and he allied Massangano's ruler while seeking to reconquer lands which had been lost to the Portuguese. In 1884 the Portuguese attacked Mutapa and curtailed Dzuda's power, annexing Chidima a year later and forcing Dzuda into exile. The British ultimatum to the Portuguese in 1890 led to the partition of Mutapa's former territories between the two colonial powers. Both Dzuda and his successor Chioko Dambamupute organised resistance against the Portuguese. Chioko ousted Dzuda during the 1890s and, with the help of Matope, led an anti-Portuguese coalition which allied with Chief Mapondera and attacked Portuguese centres in the Zambezi Valley up to Tete from 1897. In 1900 the resistance was joined by Massangano and the Barue, and by 1901 Chioko's forces (with Mapondera leading the military) were in control of most of modern-day Tete Province, as his dream of re-establishing the Mutapa Empire's former glory neared realisation. However in 1902 Chioko was killed while assisting the Barue against the Portuguese, and his successor, Kamanika, failed to command the same authority over the broad coalition, shattering these efforts as the Portuguese suppressed the rebellion. == Government ==

Kingship and central government The state was headed by a (king/emperor) with the title . A royal court was called ("large house of stone"), and was enclosed by stone walls and located at the capital. Some later rulers built their courts out of mud and wood, enclosed by wood fences. A new could relocate the capital, though that was only usually done if strategically necessary. Capitals were initially located in the - area, and moved to the region of (modern-day Mozambique) in the 18th century. Wives of the (; "junior wives") were chosen from the daughters of his vassals (reinforcing political relations and alliances), and numbered in the hundreds (possibly thousands according to one source). They were divided into nine 'houses', the heads of which were , , , , , , , , and . and were sisters or close relatives of the and served as ambassadors to the Portuguese and Swahili traders respectively, while only lived with the as the first 'non-ritualistic' wife. Traditionally the only sister-wife of Matope, was likely the initial Chief Wife, though is recorded as holding the position in the 16th and 17th centuries (possibly because of the importance of relations with the Portuguese). was Chief Wife in the 18th century, though she had lost her authority and power as the state had lost control of Handa (in Dande). Only the sister-wives were permitted to have sexual relations with people other than the , and their children were not eligible for the kingship. In the 16th and 17th centuries the eight chief wives besides lived in large settlements not far from the capital and had their own polities and 'palaces'. The royal court included the (Council), which consisted of the 's ministers and advisors (appointed by him personally, sometimes from specific families). The was the Chief Minister and the second most powerful figure in the state. Stan Mudenge wrote that the holder of the position was likely a prince, and that its description as "governor of the kingdoms/provinces" may mean the holder liaised with provincial governors, or that he had a role in appointing their successors. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the house lost their position as Chief Minister, and instead became guardians of the royal graves along with other royal houses. The (heir) became the second most powerful figure, while the position of Chief Minister went to the house and clan in the 18th and 19th centuries respectively. The was the supreme commander of Mutapa's forces, though the state did not have a standing army. After Nyambo Kaparidze (of the house) lost the kingship to Mavura in the 17th century, the position of supreme commander primarily went to the clan, and was held by the in the 19th century. The (a position held by a Tavara) was the Chief Steward and treasurer, and was in charge of royal finances and appointing the . The position of was held by the 's son-in-law, who served as the king's loyal right-hand man. Other important offices present at the royal court included the Chief Musician (in charge of the court musicians), the Chief Door-Keeper (), the Chief /Diviner (), and another priest titled (the latter two were held by Tavaras due to them being , "owners of the soil"). Family members such as the 's mother, uncles, and princes () could also attend court and offer advice. Minor positions included bodyguards/executioners, musicians, dancers, praise singers, cooks, and pages (who were the sons of provincial rulers). While the institution was being developed in the early years of the Mutapa state, so was the -Karuva cult among the Tavara. According to tradition, Karuva was a member of the clan and famous rainmaker-priest of the (God) cult who resisted Matope's conquest, and was said to have drowned in Nyamakate pool. The pool was near to the Mitimichena shrine (controlled by the clan), which either continued to be or became the centre of the cult, as well as the place to venerate Karuva's . Over time Karuva and became closely associated and even conflated, privileging the status of the clan. The -Karuva cult was thus incorporated into the Mutapa state, rivalling the in terms of power due to the Tavara's longer habitation of the land, and Karuva became a -type figure. Together, the two institutions served both to check and support the , and were treated as avenues to the same Shona high god. == Economy ==

The economy of the Mutapa state was based in agriculture and pastoralism. The royal cattle herds were likely very numerous (increased through reproduction and tribute), and some were kept as far as away from the capital. Cattle also served as a store of wealth, and possibly sometimes as baggage animals. They were loaned to people in a system called , wherein the recipient could sell the cattle's product and keep the profit, though they were not allowed to dispose of the cattle. In practice, this constituted a system of vassalage and served to distribute wealth and food among the population. The also gifted cattle as a show of favour. When the state moved to and Chidima in the late-17th century, cattle became less important and were replaced with sheep, goats, and pigs due to the Zambezi Valley being infested with tsetse flies. People using hoes carried out ("labour as tribute") on fields belonging to their (ward headman) and (provincial chief), with people in the 's own province working on royal fields (including those belonging to royal wives). Contemporary sources said that food was abundant (especially on the central plateau), and that feasts were common. Grain (sometimes received as tribute) was kept in granaries (), and could be kept for three to five years, mitigating the semi-regular droughts. One local industry was the production of cloth (made from cotton), which could be threaded together with imported cloths. Other industries included iron- and copper-working, wood-carving, basketry, weaving, and pottery, all undertaken by specialists (). Gold was a secondary source of income for much of the population, and mining and processing was usually done outside of planting and harvest season. Gold deposits were found by inspecting soil types and vegetation (possibly via anthills), which Stan Mudenge said was very effective, and gold reefs were mined and typically exhausted. Underground water often caused mines to be abandoned, and mining was thus typically undertaken during the dry season. Alluvial deposits were extracted by panning. Tribute to the was often paid in gold, and, when desired, the would pay labourers in cattle to mine some for him. Gold production in the Mutapa state peaked in the years before c. 1500, and declined following Manyika's independence in the 16th century, and again in the 1690s when the Rozvi Empire took control of the remaining gold-producing regions. The decline was also due to the more accessible gold deposits being used up, with the danger of the work and lack of stable income making it less attractive to the population. Elephant hunting was undertaken by the population to obtain meat and ivory, as well as to prevent damage to crops. It was done by either constructing pits which the elephant would fall into, or by spearing and incapacitating a sleeping elephant. The local had a right to one tusk from each elephant hunted in their territory. Elephants became an important source of wealth following the decline of gold production, and were a crucial source of protein in tsetse-infested Chidima and during famine. External or foreign trade was conducted at bazaars or (Muslim and Portuguese marketplaces) in Mutapa which were frequented by Muslim and Portuguese traders. Foreign traders travelled up the Zambezi to reach Tete, then went inland to the marketplaces, or travelled inland across Barue to reach ones in Manyika. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Zumbo was a trading centre for the Rozvi and Chidima. Masapa was a key marketplace during the 16th and early-17th centuries (nicknamed the "gate of Mutapa"), followed by Dambarare in the late-17th century. While most traders exchanged goods at the marketplaces, some employed African agents () to trade at administrative capitals or big villages, though the Shona population generally preferred their own products over imported goods. Following Changamire Dombo's war in the 1690s, all Portuguese were abandoned save for ones in Manyika. The taxed external trade, reportedly receiving one in every 20 pieces of cloth (ie. a 5% tax) that went through Masapa, or one in every 40 (2.5%) while under Portuguese vassalage (provincial chiefs also taxed trade goods that passed through their land). The received another tax from foreign traders called , wherein Muslim or Portuguese traders paid for the permission to trade in Mutapa; if unpaid, the seized what was due from traders (called a (limited war); he also regularly received gifts from traders). == Society and culture ==

Shona socio-political organisation consisted of increasing units of size, namely the nuclear family (), the village (), the ward (), and the chiefdom/province (). The (which included a husband, his wife/wives, and their children) lived in a compound () which had adjacent fields to grow crops. The largest of these belonged to the father, as the family head, and was worked on by everyone, though the wife/wives and older children also owned gardens. The father attended the village council (), and did hunting, cattle-keeping, and strenuous labour, while the wife/wives did housework, cooking (including brewing beer), and agricultural work. The position of village head ( or ) usually belonged to the family head of the original founders of the village, and villages tended to consist of male kin and their families ('outsiders' residing in the village were called , and may be incorporated via the establishment of 'perpetual kinship' relations). Villages split if the population grew too big, and moved location so as to avoid land degradation. Work parties ( or ) in a village were generally attended by men and 'mature' women, and were organised if someone wanted help with their labour (the wife brewed beer for such occasions). Though men were generally expected to be competent in all tasks, specialists () were often hired, and were believed to be gain their proficiency from being imbued with spirits. At , men expressed views and raised issues, with fines sometimes being imposed; women were only permitted to attend if invited. A ward was usually defined by natural boundaries, and headed by a (usually a descendant of the first man in the region or of a conquering dynasty). Capitals of wards were called and had a higher level of , to which village heads occasionally attended. Rest days or ( ) were held on the day the original was thought to have died (weeks were 10 days long and comprised months which were 30 days long). People paid tribute to a with labour (). were headed by chiefs () whose capitals were referred to as ( ), and had a higher level . Chiefs received from subjects nearby, while tribute () from those further away was paid in goods. They also could raise large armies. ==See also==