Hobsbawm lays out his analysis in
The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848 (1962),
The Age of Capital: 1848–1875 (1975), and
The Age of Empire: 1875–1914 (1987). Hobsbawm starts his long 19th century with his
dual revolution: the
Industrial Revolution, which brought about vast technological advancement and societal change; and the
French Revolution, which sought to establish universal and egalitarian citizenship in France. He ends it with the
outbreak of World War I, which concluded in 1918 with the long-enduring
European power balance of the 19th century proper (1801–1900) realigned. In a sequel to this trilogy,
The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (1994), Hobsbawm details the "short 20th century" (a concept originally proposed by
Iván T. Berend), beginning with the World War I and ending with the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, between 1914
–1991. A more generalized version of the long 19th century, lasting from 1750 to 1914, is often used by
Peter Stearns in the context of the world history school. In religious contexts, specifically those concerning the
history of the Catholic Church, the long 19th century was a period of centralization of
papal power over the
Catholic Church. This centralization was in opposition to the increasingly centralized nation states and contemporary revolutionary movements, and used many of the same organizational and communication techniques as its rivals. The Church's long 19th century, covering the period between the decline of traditional Catholic power and the emergence of secular ideas within states and the emergence of new thinking within the church after the election of
Pope John XXIII, extended from the
French Revolution (1789) until the death of
Pope Pius XII (1958). ==See also==