Painting was an essential part of the decoration of Ottoman buildings and it covered interior walls, ceilings, and the inside of domes. However, it has been relatively neglected in studies of Ottoman architecture, probably in part because very little original Ottoman painted decoration has been preserved to the present day, as much of it was redone or replaced in more recent periods. Paint, as well as
gold leaf, was applied on a variety of mediums including plaster, wood, leather or cloth, and stone. For plaster decoration, there were generally two types: and . The first refers to paint being applied directly to plaster, while the second referred to applying paint onto
relief decoration sculpted beforehand. The design of the ornamentation was often
stenciled onto the plaster first, using paper pierced with pin holes in the shape of the motifs, over which coal dust was rubbed to leave outlines on the walls that were then painted. The motifs of this decoration were typically similar to the motifs used in other contemporary arts, such as
manuscript illumination. The painters, who came from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds, were either independent artists or artisans already employed by the imperial palace, hired specifically to decorate the building. The patrons who commissioned the buildings may have laid down certain parameters or instructions for the decorators, such as requesting inscriptions that highlighted their social status or a political message.
Early trends decoration inside the
Murad II Mosque in Edirne, circa 1436 Early examples indicate that Ottoman decoration developed a preference for floriate motifs. One such motif that was popular throughout the history of Ottoman art is the
rumî style, which consists of scrolling, spiraling, and/or intertwining stems with stylized leaves. This style was already in use in Anatolia in Seljuk art and in
Byzantine art. The earliest Ottoman example may be the partly-preserved painted decoration that can still be seen around a window in the
Kirgizlar Mausoleum in Iznik, which is dated to the reign of
Orhan (). Early Ottoman decorative motifs remained similar to those found in earlier
Anatolian Seljuk architecture and in neighboring Islamic cultures, as attested by a few surviving examples from the 15th century. One of the most important examples is the partially-preserved
mural decoration inside the
Murad II Mosque in Edirne, which still dates back to its construction circa 1436. The ornamentation inside the southeastern (
qibla)
iwan depicts natural landscapes with stylized flowers and trees that appear to reflect the same artistic styles used in book illustrations and
miniatures, particularly those from the
Timurid Empire further east. Painted decoration of a similar style is also found in the Mausoleum of
Cem Sultan in the
Muradiye complex in Bursa, dating from the late 15th century. There the motifs are more abstract and predominantly feature stylized vases of flowers, alongside calligraphic compositions, all rendered in highly vivid colours. Another floriate style that appeared in Ottoman decoration from the 15th century onward is
hatayî, which consists in large part of
peonies and leaves shown in varying stages of budding and blooming. This style had its origins further east in China or
Turkestan and it appeared in
Islamic art from the 13th century onward.
16th-century developments in Istanbul, circa 1554. This mixes a number of design elements including a central medallion,
saz-style motifs, and "Chinese clouds". In the early 16th century, the range of decorative motifs in Ottoman art expanded, as attested in other mediums of Ottoman art such as tiles and manuscript decoration. Only a few fragments of painted ornament have survived in architecture from this era, but a similar trend most likely occurred in this medium as well. New elements included a Chinese-inspired "cloud" motif, which took a form of curving or scrolling cloud ribbons, also apparent on contemporary tilework. In the second quarter of the century, the
saz style (also mentioned above for tile decoration) was developed by Ottoman artist
Şahkulu. It was derived from the
hatayî style and added new motifs, most notably large serrated leaves. It was less formal and geometrically rigid, allowing these motifs to be combined and arranged in a wide variety of ways to fill any space. One of the finest examples of this style surviving from the 16th century is found in the
Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque (circa 1581), where it is painted on oil cloth stretched over the lower part of the wooden
muezzin's gallery. (16th century), with central medallion design featuring calligraphy and vegetal motifs, along with four calligraphic roundels on the
pendentives The most monumental painted compositions were employed in and around the domes and semi-domes of Ottoman buildings. For much of the Ottoman era, domes were typically decorated with a circular
medallion-like composition at the center of the dome that was filled with a calligraphic rendition of Qur'anic verses. The motif of the central medallion radiated outward to cover the rest of the dome, with the details filled by
rumî,
hatayî, or
saz motifs. This type of dome decoration is well known from the 16th century onward but it probably had appeared earlier in the 15th century as well. The verses written in the central medallion were often selected from the
an-Nur ("Light") chapter of the Qur'an and may have symbolically imparted a celestial or heavenly connotation to Ottoman domes. Another common element of decoration in this context is the painting of circular calligraphic medallions on the pendentives or on the spandrels of arches that support the dome. These calligraphic compositions featured the various
epithets of God in Islam or the names of figures such as
Muhammad and the
Rashidun Caliphs. For monumental calligraphic inscriptions, a
thuluth script was generally favored. Other types of motifs were also used to cover the inside of domes, such as bands of
rumî motifs radiating from the center or other types of
rumî scrollwork. A well-preserved example of the latter is found in the dome of the Chamber of Murad III in Topkapı Palace (circa 1578), consisting of gold
rumî scrollwork over a red background. The painted decoration is enhanced with pieces of rock crystal set into the dome that were likely meant to emulate stars. This latter detail is something also found inside the dome of
Süleyman's mausoleum in Istanbul. The
intrados of large supporting arches below the domes, as well as other supporting elements like
consoles, were also covered in a variety of painted interlacing motifs. The
şukûfe style – developed by the successor of Şahkulu, Kara Memi – consists of depictions of garden flowers such as
tulips,
carnations, and
hyacinths. Unlike the other styles mentioned above, it was rarely employed on a large scale in architectural decoration, being more characteristic of tilework and book illustrations. Instead, it appears on some smaller architectural elements typically seen at close quarters, such as wooden cupboards and window shutters found in the Chamber of Murad III in Topkapı Palace. Unfortunately, much of the painted decoration from the classical era of Mimar Sinan in the 16th century has been lost. The present-day painted decoration inside the domes of many mosques of the era, including the Süleymaniye in Istanbul and the Selimiye in Edirne, dates from restorations in much later centuries. In the Süleymaniye Mosque – whose dome had to be repaired following its collapse in the 1766 earthquake – the original decoration was described by 16th-century writer Ramazanzade Mehmed as featuring many "sun-like disks" and medallion designs in gold and silver. (A 19th-century restoration by the
Fossati brothers repainted the dome in vaguely Baroque style and this decoration has been preserved today.) Only calligraphic inscriptions, which were often faithfully restored, have tended to be preserved to some extent. , circa 1583, with
geometric design framing floral motifs However, some examples of preserved paintwork from the 16th century can still be found here and there. In addition to the examples mentioned above, one important instance is found in the
Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque (circa 1554). Like many of the other preserved examples, the original paintwork visible today is found on the wooden ceilings under the mosque's galleries. The paint is combined with some low-relief plasterwork and
gilding, and the predominant colours are red and gold against a blue ground. The design features a central medallion similar to those sometimes used in
Ushak carpets, around which are scrolling vegetal motifs, Chinese clouds, and
saz-style elements. Another example is the painted wood under the galleries of the
Atik Valide Mosque in Üsküdar (circa 1583), which features a geometric pattern of polygons filled with floral motifs. Some traces of original painting can also be seen on the ceiling of the vestibule of the
Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque and under some of its galleries. The
Muradiye Mosque in Manisa preserves original paintwork on its galleries, its mihrab, and its stone minbar.
Later periods Traditional Ottoman motifs maintained a certain formality, with individual elements generally quite stylized. Starting in the second half of the 17th century, this formality loosened and painted decoration underwent a gradual shift in style that can be attributed to European influence. Among other trends,
shading was introduced to what had previously been areas of flat colour. The shape of flower motifs also changed and they were depicted with more petals. This is evident not only in new buildings but also in older buildings whose decoration was redone after this period. In some of the latter cases, the traditional designs were retained during restoration but they were updated to include shading. An example of this can be seen in the
Sinan Pasha Mosque in
Beşiktaş, a 16th-century mosque whose interior was repainted in the 19th century. Around the same time (in the second half of the 17th century), a new style known as
Edirnekārī began to appear. It primarily depicted flowers, a traditional Ottoman motif, but with an increased level of
naturalism not previously seen in Ottoman art. This trend continued into the 18th century. The reign of Ahmet III (), which include the years of the
Tulip Period (1718–1730), saw the popularization of a style featuring plentiful depictions of flowers in vases and bowls of fruit, sometimes with shading. The most vivid example of this is the so-called Fruit Room, created by Ahmet III inside Topkapı Palace in 1705, whose wooden walls are covered with such images. Derived from the
Edirnekārī style, they have a greater naturalism and are evidently influenced by Western European techniques of illustration. This new style remained popular until the end of the century. It is often seen on wooden doors and other wooden fixtures from this period. Examples of these are found in other parts of Topkapı Palace as well as on the wooden screen of the upper gallery in the
Piyale Pasha Mosque, which was likely added in the 18th century. The style was also popular beyond the capital and can be found as far as
Crimea, where the palace of the
Crimean khan (an Ottoman vassal) in
Bakhchisaray contains wooden panels painted in the same manner. Mosque in
Nevşehir (circa 1726), showing continued use of more traditional Ottoman floral decoration The more traditional
rumî,
hatayî, and
saz styles did not disappear yet and continued to be used during this period. The two religious complexes built by
Damat Ibrahim Pasha in Istanbul (1720) and in his hometown of
Nevşehir (1726), both feature examples of these motifs applied in the technique. They appear to be similar to the art of contemporary Ottoman painter
Ali Üsküdari (d. 1763). (1775–1780) The advent of the
Ottoman Baroque architectural style in the 1740s also brought new motifs of European origin or influence. For example, traditional Ottoman medallion designs could now be replaced with European-style
cartouches. A rare example of painted decoration from this time that still survives in its original state can be found in the library of the
Hacı Beşir Ağa Mosque in Istanbul (1744–1745). Here, the vaulted ceiling is painted with a central cartouche and a field of pink and yellow ovals surrounded by European
strapwork motifs. Many other Ottoman Baroque mosques have since been repainted and much of the original composition or character of their painted decoration has been lost. The interior of the
Nuruosmaniye Mosque (1748–1755), one of the most important monuments of the period, has been repainted in this manner; however, a recent restoration has uncovered some of the original paintwork in its dome, which is now visible. Recent restoration of
Abdülhamid I's Tomb (1775–1780) has also managed to recover some of the original paintwork under layers of later repainting, revealing
Rococo motifs in shades of green and pink. (circa 1866), showing further European influence of this era By the end of the 18th century, styles of painted decoration were changing again, further influenced by Europe. The new repertoire of motifs came to include
garlands, ribbons, flower bouquets, and baskets of roses. Decoration could now be painted to appear three-dimensional, adding a new visual effect even when otherwise traditional motifs were used. This style is found in many mosques and palaces built or restored in the 19th century.
Grisaille was also used in some cases. In the
Ayazma Mosque, for example, the 18th-century decoration was repainted in the 19th century by keeping the same motifs of flower vases but rendering them in shades of grey and black. Murals of naturalistic landscapes also became common from the late 18th century onward, especially in the interior decoration of palaces. in Istanbul (1843–1856), painted with ''
trompe-l'œil'' Lastly, the ''
trompe-l'œil technique was also imported into the empire and can be found both in Istanbul and beyond. Although some minor details of earlier paintwork were suggestive of this technique (e.g. in the Ayazma Mosque), its effective use only began during the reign of Abdülmecid I (), when specialists in this type of painting were most likely hired for the purpose. An example from this period is the Ortaköy Mosque, built in the 1850s, where the painted dome features trompe-l'oeil'' imagery depicting
neo-Renaissance architecture mixed with rows of Islamic-style mihrabs that replicate the design of the mosque's actual mihrab below. ''Trompe-l'oeil'' is also found in the
Dolmabaçe Palace (built 1843–1856), mixing both European and neo-Islamic motifs. A later example can be found in the
Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque (1871), whose overall decorative scheme mixes European, Ottoman, and Islamic
revivalist motifs. == Stone carving ==