1159 papal election

Pope Adrian IV died on 1 September 1159. Fearing a possible schism, shortly before his death he recommended to the cardinals the election of Cardinal Bernard of Porto as his successor. ==List of participants==

There were thirty-one cardinals in September 1159. One of them seems not to have participated in the election, leaving thirty electors: Five electors were created by Pope Innocent II, two by Pope Celestine II, four by Pope Lucius II, eight by Pope Eugenius III and eleven by Pope Adrian IV. ==Absentee==

==Divisions in the Sacred College==

The College of Cardinals was divided into two factions: the so-called "Sicilian" party and the Imperial faction. The "Sicilian" party, led by chancellor Rolando of Siena and Camerlengo Boso, supported the pro-Sicilian policy of Adrian IV. The Imperial faction was led by Ottaviano of S. Cecilia. It is known that the "Sicilian" party counted thirteen cardinals. They were chancellor Roland of S. Marco, camerlengo Boso of SS. Cosma e Damiano, cardinal-bishops Bernard of Porto, Ubaldo of Ostia, Walter of Albano and Gregorio of Sabina, as well as cardinals Odone of S. Giorgio, Ubaldo of S. Croce, Ottone of S. Nicola, Ardicio of S. Teodoro, Giovanni of S. Anastasia, Ildebrando of SS. Apostoli and Pietro of S. Eustachio. The Imperial party may have counted as many as nine cardinals, but only six can be identified as its members: Ottaviano of S. Cecilia, Giovanni of SS. Silvestro e Martino, Guido of S. Maria in Trastevere, Imar of Tusculum, Raymond of S. Maria in Via Lata and Simeone of S. Maria in Domnica Guglielmo of S. Pietro in Vincoli was probably the seventh one. Perhaps Cardinal Cinzio of S. Adriano also belonged to this faction. The remaining ten cardinals were neutral. It is believed that both factions made some preparations to the election in the last months of the pontificate of Adrian IV, although these attempts are known only from the hostile accounts produced for the polemical purposes during the subsequent schism and it is impossible to verify their accuracy. Both sides accused each other of illegal conspiracies. The adherents of Victor IV accused "Sicilians" of receiving the bribes from the king William I of Sicily and the anti-Imperial cities of Brescia, Milan and Piacenza. They ostensibly made an oath not to vote for any candidate outside their circle. On the other hand, "Sicilians" accused imperialists of hatching a plot with the imperial envoy Otto von Wittelsbach, who was present at Rome at the time of the election and gave the significant support to Victor IV in taking control over the Patrimony of St. Peter. ==Proceedings==

Election of Alexander III , site of the 1159 conclave The cardinals assembled in the Vatican Basilica on 4 September, three days after the death of Adrian IV. They had decided that, according to the custom, the election should be unanimous to be valid. It seems that the candidature of Bernard of Porto, recommended by Adrian as acceptable for both factions, had never been even advanced. Both parties put forward candidates mutually unacceptable: the imperial party proposed Ottaviano de Monticelli, while "Sicilians" proposed chancellor Rolando. The cardinals discussed for three days without achieving a compromise. However, the "Sicilian" party was able to join all the neutral cardinals and probably detached also some members of the imperial faction. On the fourth day (7 September), Cardinal Rolando of Siena was proclaimed pope by them and took the name Alexander III, although the unanimity had not been achieved and some cardinals still opposed his candidature. However, the version of the imperial cardinals is believed to be less reliable than the version of the Alexandrine party, even if the latter may be also not fully accurate; based on the subscriptions of the manifests of both parties issued shortly after the election, it is possible to assume that at least twenty-three electors voted for Rolando, and no more than six opposed him. Election of Victor IV The electors of Cardinal Rolando, immediately after proclaiming him Pope, attempted to place upon him the purple mantle which symbolized the assumption of the papal office, but then the election entered the tumultuous stage. Cardinal Ottaviano Monticelli snatched the mantle from Alexander's back and his armed bands burst into the basilica. Alexander III and his supporters fled to the citadel of St. Peter, which was in the hands of Cardinal Boso. In their absence, the few cardinals who remained in basilica elected Ottaviano of S. Cecilia to the papacy and enthroned him as Victor IV. Consecration of Alexander III Pope Alexander III remained in the citadel for a week until he was rescued and escorted from Rome by Odo Frangipane, and on September 18 he was eventually bestowed with the purple mantle. On 27 September he excommunicated Victor IV and his adherents. Consecration of Victor IV Victor IV was consecrated on 4 October in the abbey of Farfa by Cardinal-Bishop Imar of Tusculum, dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, assisted by the bishops Ubaldo of Ferentino and Riccardo of Melfi. With the armed assistance of Otto von Wittelsbach and his own armed groups in relatively short time he took control over the City of Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter, while Alexander III took refuge in the territory of the Kingdom of Sicily, and later in France. Manifests of both factions in October 1159 Both rivals together with their adherents defended the legality of their elections. In October 1159 cardinals of both obediences produced the manifests to the Emperor Frederick in favour of their elects. The “Alexandrine” manifest was subscribed by twenty three cardinals, while that of Victorine faction only by five. Supporters of Victor IV, admitting that they were in minority, justified their action by the fact that the opposite faction broke the rule of unanimity and – in consequence – the election of Rolando was invalid. The opposite party claimed that the principle of unanimity had been breached by the obstructive conduct of merely three cardinals of the Imperial faction, who stubbornly refused to recognize the candidate desired by the rest of the Sacred College. Raymond of S. Maria in Vi Lata did the same between February and April 1160. Besides, at the end of 1159 Victor IV created at least three new cardinal-deacons: Bernard of SS. Sergio e Bacco, Giovanni of S Maria in Aquiro and Lando of S. Angelo, while Alexander III appointed on February 18, 1160, cardinal-deacon Milo of S. Maria in Aquiro. ==Schism==

of Alexander III Both popes sent their legates to the Catholic kingdoms in order to secure their recognition. At the council of Pavia in February 1160 Emperor Frederick I declared himself in favour of Victor IV, and the episcopate of the Empire followed him, with the significant exception of archbishop of Salzburg Eberhard I von Hilpolstein-Biburg and his suffragans. King Valdemar I of Denmark also gave his support to Victor IV, but the primate of Denmark archbishop Eskil of Lund became partisan of Alexander III. It seems that Poland also supported Victor IV. The rest of Europe, namely France, England, Spain, Sweden, Norway, Scotland, Hungary, Sicily and the Latin territories in Outremer, recognized Alexander III as true Pope, even if in some of these countries there were a significant Victorine minorities in episcopates or among feudal rulers. The papal schism in Europe was now a fact. The unity of the Church had been restored only after eighteen years, when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III signed a Treaty of Venice (1 August 1177); shortly thereafter the pro-imperial pope Callistus III (successor of Victor IV) abandoned his claims to the papacy and submitted to Alexander III (29 August 1178). Victor IV and his successors Paschal III (1164–68) and Callistus III (1168–78) are now regarded as antipopes by the Catholic Church, while Alexander III is recognized as legitimate successor of St. Peter the Apostle. ==Aftermath==

The election of 1159 and the subsequent schism showed the necessity of amending the rules concerning papal elections. The decree Licet de evitanda discordia issued by the Third Lateran Council in 1179 abolished the rule of unanimity in favour of the rule of the majority of two thirds. The decree confirmed also that all three orders of the College of Cardinals (bishops, priests and deacons) are equal in the papal elections. Although the practice allowing the participation of cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons on equal rights with cardinal-bishops had been introduced no later than in the papal election, 1118, the decree In Nomine Domini (1059) conferring the special electoral rights on the cardinal-bishops had never been formally revoked up to that time. ==References==