Birth cup by the Xenotimos Painter, c. 430–420 BC. The egg, watched over by the eagle of Zeus, rests on an altar flanked by Tyndareus and Leda; behind Tyndareus stands Clytemnestra. In most sources, including the
Iliad and the
Odyssey, Helen is the daughter of
Zeus and of
Leda, the wife of the Spartan king
Tyndareus.
Euripides' play
Helen, written in the late 5th century BC, is the earliest source to report the most familiar account of Helen's birth: that, although her putative father was Tyndareus, she was actually Zeus' daughter. In the form of a swan, the king of gods was chased by an eagle, and sought refuge with Leda. The swan gained her affection, and the two mated. Leda then produced an
egg, from which Helen emerged. The First
Vatican Mythographer introduces the notion that two eggs came from the union: one containing
Castor and Pollux; one with Helen and
Clytemnestra. Nevertheless, the same author earlier states that Helen, Castor and Pollux were produced from a single egg.
Fabius Planciades Fulgentius also states that Helen, Castor and Pollux are born from the same egg.
Pseudo-Apollodorus states that Leda had intercourse with both Zeus and Tyndareus the night she conceived Helen. On the other hand, in the
Cypria, part of the
Epic Cycle, Helen was the daughter of Zeus and the goddess
Nemesis. The date of the
Cypria is uncertain, but it is generally thought to preserve traditions that date back to at least the 7th century BC. In the
Cypria, Nemesis did not wish to mate with Zeus. She therefore changed shape into various animals as she attempted to flee Zeus, finally becoming a goose. Zeus also transformed himself into a goose and raped Nemesis, who produced an egg from which Helen was born. Presumably, in the
Cypria, this egg was somehow transferred to Leda. Later sources state either that it was brought to Leda by a shepherd who discovered it in a grove in
Attica, or that it was dropped into her lap by
Hermes. (–1510,
Wilton). The artist has been intrigued by the idea of Helen's unconventional birth; she and Clytemnestra are shown emerging from one
egg; Castor and Pollux from another. Asclepiades of Tragilos and
Pseudo-Eratosthenes related a similar story, except that Zeus and Nemesis became swans instead of geese.
Timothy Gantz has suggested that the tradition that Zeus came to Leda in the form of a swan derives from the version in which Zeus and Nemesis transformed into birds.
Pausanias states that in the middle of the 2nd century AD, the remains of an egg-shell, tied up in ribbons, were still suspended from the roof of a temple on the Spartan acropolis. People believed that this was "the famous egg that legend says Leda brought forth". Pausanias traveled to Sparta to visit the sanctuary, dedicated to
Hilaeira and
Phoebe, in order to see the relic for himself.
Pausanias also says that there was a local tradition that Helen's brothers, "the
Dioscuri" (i.e. Castor and Pollux), were born on the island of
Pefnos, adding that the Spartan poet
Alcman also said this, while the poet
Lycophron's use of the adjective "Pephnaian" (
Πεφναίας) in association with Helen, suggests that Lycophron may have known a tradition which held that Helen was also born on the island.
Youthful abduction by Theseus pursuing a woman, probably Helen. Side A from an Attic red-figure bell-krater, c. 440–430 BC (
Louvre, Paris). Two
Athenians,
Theseus and
Pirithous, thought that since they were sons of gods, they should have divine wives; they thus pledged to help each other abduct two daughters of
Zeus. Theseus chose Helen, and Pirithous vowed to marry
Persephone, the wife of
Hades. Theseus took Helen and left her with his mother
Aethra or his associate Aphidnus at
Aphidnae or
Athens. Theseus and Pirithous then traveled to the
underworld, the domain of Hades, to kidnap Persephone. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast, but, as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Helen's abduction caused an invasion of Athens by Castor and Pollux, who captured
Aethra in revenge, and returned their sister to Sparta. In
Goethe's
Faust, Centaur
Chiron is said to have aided the Dioscuri brothers in returning Helen home. In most accounts of this event, Helen was quite young;
Hellanicus of Lesbos said she was seven years old and
Diodorus makes her ten years old. On the other hand,
Stesichorus said that
Iphigenia was the daughter of Theseus and Helen, which implies that Helen was of childbearing age. In most sources, Iphigenia is the daughter of
Agamemnon and
Clytemnestra, but
Duris of Samos and other writers, such as
Antoninus Liberalis, followed Stesichorus' account.
Ovid's
Heroides give us an idea of how ancient and, in particular,
Roman authors imagined Helen in her youth: she is presented as a young princess wrestling naked in the
palaestra, alluding to a part of girls' physical education in classical (not Mycenaean) Sparta.
Sextus Propertius imagines Helen as a girl who practices arms and hunts with her brothers:
Suitors When it was time for Helen to marry, many kings and princes from around the world came to seek her hand, bringing rich gifts with them or sent emissaries to do so on their behalf. During the contest, Castor and Pollux had a prominent role in dealing with the suitors, although the final decision was in the hands of Tyndareus. Menelaus, her future husband, did not attend but sent his brother,
Agamemnon, to represent him. He was chosen as he had the most wealth.
Oath of Tyndareus Tyndareus was afraid to select a husband for his daughter, or send any of the suitors away, for fear of offending them and giving grounds for a quarrel.
Odysseus was one of the suitors, but had brought no gifts because he believed he had little chance to win the contest. He thus promised to solve the problem, if Tyndareus in turn would support him in his courting of
Penelope, the daughter of
Icarius. Tyndareus readily agreed, and Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband against whoever should quarrel with him. After the suitors had sworn not to retaliate, Menelaus was chosen to be Helen's husband because he was the "greatest in possessions" and had offered the most gifts. As a sign of the importance of the pact, Tyndareus
sacrificed a horse. Helen and Menelaus became rulers of Sparta, after Tyndareus and Leda abdicated. Menelaus and Helen rule in Sparta for at least ten years; they have a daughter,
Hermione, and (according to some myths) three sons:
Aethiolas, Maraphius, and
Pleisthenes. The marriage of Helen and Menelaus marks the beginning of the end of the age of heroes. Concluding the catalog of Helen's suitors, Hesiod reports Zeus' plan to obliterate the race of men and the heroes in particular. The Trojan War, caused by Helen's elopement with Paris, is going to be his means to this end.
Seduction or kidnapping by Paris painting of Paris and the Trojans fleeing Sparta with Helen among their spoils. Walters Art Museum.
Paris, a Trojan prince, came to Sparta to claim Helen, in the guise of a supposed diplomatic mission. Before this journey, Paris had been appointed by Zeus to
judge the most beautiful goddess;
Hera,
Athena, or
Aphrodite. In order to earn his favour, Aphrodite promised Paris the most beautiful woman in the world. Swayed by Aphrodite's offer, Paris chose her as the most beautiful of the goddesses, earning the wrath of
Athena and
Hera. Although Helen is sometimes depicted as being forcibly abducted by Paris, most Ancient Greek sources, following
Homer, believed that Helen fell in love with the Trojan prince, and went to Troy willingly. In
Homer, Helen herself says she followed Paris, or that she was led to Troy by Aphrodite. Herodotus, who says Paris "carried off" (
ἁρπάσαντος) Helen, states Paris "got her to fly" with him. The
Cypria simply mentions that after giving Helen gifts, "Aphrodite brings the Spartan queen together with the Prince of Troy."
Apollodorus says Paris persuaded Helen to leave with him, and
Sappho argues that Helen willingly left behind Menelaus and their daughter,
Hermione, to be with Paris: , the House of the Golden Cupids
Dio Chrysostom gives a completely different account of the story, questioning Homer's credibility: after Agamemnon had married Helen's sister, Clytemnestra, Tyndareus sought Helen's hand for Menelaus for political reasons. However, Helen was sought by many suitors, who came from far and near, among them Paris who surpassed all the others and won the favor of Tyndareus and his sons. Thus he won her fairly and took her away to Troia, with the full consent of her natural protectors.
Cypria narrate that in just three days Paris and Helen reached Troy. Homer narrates that during a brief stop-over in the small island of
Kranai, according to
Iliad, the two lovers consummated their passion. On the other hand,
Cypria note that this happened the night before they left Sparta. Girolamo Genga L'enlèvement d'Hélène.JPG|
The Abduction of Helen, painting by
Girolamo Genga, circa 1510 (
Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg). File:Rape of Helen by Francesco Primaticcio.jpg|In western painting, Helen's journey to Troy is usually depicted as a forced abduction.
The Rape of Helen by
Francesco Primaticcio (c. 1530–1539,
Bowes Museum) is representative of this tradition. File:Enlèvement d'Hélène, Reni (Louvre INV 539) 09.jpg|In
Guido Reni's painting (1631, Louvre, Paris), however, Paris holds Helen by her wrist (as he already did in Genga's painting shown here on the left), and they leave together for Troia. File:Tintoretto Rape of Helen.jpg|
The Rape of Helen by
Tintoretto (1578–1579,
Museo del Prado,
Madrid); Helen languishes in the corner of a land-sea battle scene. File:Enrique Simonet - El Juicio de Paris.jpg|
El Juicio de Paris by
Enrique Simonet, c. 1904. This painting depicts Paris' judgement. He is inspecting Aphrodite, who is standing naked before him. Hera and Athena watch nearby. In her book
Helen of Troy: Myth, Beauty, Devastation, Ruby Blondell posits, "Though [Helen's] departure is typically referred to as an 'abduction', none of our sources claims that Paris took Helen by force against her will. Her complicity is essential to her story".
In Egypt At least three Ancient Greek authors denied that Helen ever went to Troy; instead, they suggested, Helen stayed in Egypt during the Trojan War. Those three authors are Euripides, Stesichorus, and Herodotus. In the version put forth by Euripides in his play
Helen,
Hera fashioned a likeness (
eidolon, εἴδωλον) of Helen out of clouds at Zeus' request,
Hermes took her to Egypt, and Helen never went to Troy, but instead spent the entire war in
Egypt. An
eidolon is also present in
Stesichorus' account, but not in Herodotus' rationalizing version of the myth. In addition to these accounts,
Lycophron (822) states that
Hesiod was the first to mention Helen's
eidolon. This may mean Hesiod stated this in a literary work, or that the idea was widely known/circulated in early archaic Greece during the time of Hesiod and was consequently attributed to him. Upon trying to leave Egypt, hostile winds kept their ships grounded. In response, Menelaus sacrificed two Egyptian children and returned to Sparta.
In Troy When he discovered that his wife was missing, Menelaus called upon all the other suitors to fulfill their oaths, thus beginning the Trojan War. The Greek fleet gathered in
Aulis, but the ships could not sail for lack of wind.
Artemis was enraged by a sacrilege, and only the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter,
Iphigenia, could appease her. In Euripides
Iphigenia in Aulis, Clytemnestra, Iphigenia's mother and Helen's sister, begs her husband to reconsider his decision, calling Helen a "wicked woman". Clytemnestra tries to warn Agamemnon that sacrificing Iphigenia for Helen's sake is, "
buying what we most detest with what we hold most dear". However, Agamemnon went through with the act; the winds turned, and the fleet set sail for Troy. File:Leighton Helen of Troy.jpg|
Helen on the Ramparts of Troy was a popular theme in late 19th-century art – seen here a depiction by
Frederick Leighton. File:Helen Moreau.jpg|In a similar fashion to Leighton,
Gustave Moreau depicts an expressionless Helen; a blank or anguished face. File:Often she would stand upon the walls of Troy.jpg|
Lithographic illustration by Walter Crane File:Hélène.jpg|Paul Dujardin after Gustave Moreau,
Hélène, photogravure, 1880 Before the opening of hostilities, the Greeks dispatched a delegation to the Trojans under Odysseus and Menelaus; they endeavored without success to persuade
Priam to hand Helen back. A popular theme,
The Request of Helen (Helenes Apaitesis, Ἑλένης Ἀπαίτησις), was the subject of a drama by
Sophocles, now lost. Homer paints a poignant, lonely picture of Helen in Troy. She is filled with self-loathing and regret for what she has caused; by the end of the war, the Trojans have come to hate her. When
Hector dies, she is the third mourner at his funeral, and she says that, of all the Trojans, Hector and
Priam alone were always kind to her: These bitter words reveal that Helen gradually realized Paris' weaknesses, and decided to ally herself with Hector. There is an affectionate relationship between the two, and Helen has harsh words for Paris when she compares the two brothers: After Paris was killed in combat, there was some dispute among the Trojans about which of Priam's surviving sons she should remarry:
Helenus or
Deiphobus, but she was given to the latter.
During the Fall of Troy drags
Cassandra from
Palladium before eyes of
Priam, fresco from the
Casa del Menandro,
Pompeii During the fall of Troy, Helen's role is ambiguous. In
Virgil's
Aeneid, Deiphobus gives an account of Helen's treacherous stance: when the
Trojan Horse was admitted into the city, she feigned
Bacchic rites, leading a chorus of Trojan women, and, holding a torch among them, she signaled to the Greeks from the city's central tower. In the
Odyssey, however, Homer narrates a different story: Helen circled the Horse three times, and she imitated the voices of the Greek women left behind at home—she thus tortured the men inside (including Odysseus and Menelaus) with the memory of their loved ones, and brought them to the brink of destruction.
krater, 450–440 BC. After the deaths of Hector and Paris, Helen became the paramour of their younger brother, Deiphobus. According to
Vergil, when the sack of Troy began, she hid her new husband's sword, leaving him to the mercy of Menelaus and Odysseus. She hoped this would erase her past actions.
Aeneas meets the mutilated Deiphobus in
Hades; his wounds serve as a testimony to his ignominious end, abetted by Helen's final act of treachery.
belly amphora attributed to
Exekias, 540–530 BC. In
Quintus Smyrnaeus' account, Menelaus found Helen hiding in fear from him. He raised his sword, intending to kill her, until
Aphrodite knocked it out of his hand. She stirred desire in him, making him spare Helen's life. In other sources, she dropped her robe from her shoulders, and the sight of her breasts caused Menelaus to let go of his sword. Euripides'
Electra wails:
Stesichorus wrote that both the Greeks and Trojans gathered to stone Helen to death. When they saw her face, they too dropped their weapons.
Fate Helen returned to
Sparta and lived with Menelaus, where she was encountered by
Telemachus in Book 4 of
The Odyssey. She and Menelaus were seemingly reconciled — he holding no grudge at her having run away with a lover and she feeling no restraint in telling anecdotes of her life at Troy. However, some suggest the scene has underlying conflict. Menelaus immediately undercuts Helen's tale of loyalty to Greece with a story of his own, where she tries to expose the soldiers hidden inside the
horse. According to another version, used by
Euripides in his play
Orestes, Helen had been saved by
Apollo from Orestes and was taken up to
Mount Olympus almost immediately after Menelaus' return. She was then made a sea goddess who watches over sailors alongside her brothers,
Castor and Pollux. A curious fate is recounted by
Pausanias (3.19.11–13), which has Helen share the afterlife with Achilles. Pausanias recorded a different version of Helen's ultimate fate. According to him, when Menelaus died, his sons kicked Helen out of the palace, so she went to
Rhodes, where an old friend of hers,
Polyxo the wife of
Tlepolemus, ruled. Tlepolemus had perished during the Trojan War leaving Polyxo a widow with a young child, so unbeknownst to Helen, Polyxo deeply resented her now. She pretended to receive Helen warmly, but when the queen of Sparta relaxed in a bath, she sent handmaidens dressed up as
Furies to seize Helen and hang her from a tree. Thereafter the Rhodians worshipped her as Helen of the Tree (
Helene Dendritis). There are other traditions concerning the punishment of Helen. For example, she is offered as a sacrifice to the gods in Tauris by
Iphigeneia, or
Thetis, enraged when Achilles dies because of Helen, kills her on her return journey. Tlepolemus was a son of
Heracles and Astyoche. Astyoche was a daughter of Phylas, King of Ephyra who was killed by Heracles. Tlepolemus was killed by
Sarpedon on the first day of fighting in the
Iliad. Nicostratus was a son of Menelaus by his concubine Pieris, an Aetolian slave.
Megapenthes was a son of Menelaus by his concubine Tereis, with no further origin. In
Euripides's tragedy
The Trojan Women, Helen is shunned by the women who survived the war and is to be taken back to Greece to face a death sentence. This version is contradicted by two of Euripides' other tragedies,
Electra, which predates The Trojan Women, and
Helen, as Helen is described as being in Egypt during the events of the Trojan War in each. == Artistic representations ==