Pedestrian crossing

The first pedestrian crossing signal was erected in London in December 1868. It was installed to allow pedestrians, especially Members of Parliament hurrying to vote, to cross Bridge Street to reach the Parliamentary Estate. It was the idea of John Peake Knight, a railway engineer. The signal consisted of three semaphore arms surmounted by a gas lantern which at night showed green and red aspects as appropriate to pedestrians and those on the carriageway (see image here). The semaphore arms were raised and lowered manually by a police constable who would rotate a handle on the side of the pole. However, in January 1869, the gas leaked and caused an explosion, injuring the police operator. No further work was done on signalled pedestrian crossings until fifty years later. In the early 20th century, car traffic increased dramatically. A reader of The Times wrote to the editor in 1911: Could you do something to help the pedestrian to recover the old margin of safety on our common streets and roads? It is heartrending to read of the fearful deaths taking place. If a pedestrian now has even one hesitation or failure the chance of escape from a dreadful death is now much less than when all vehicles were much slower. There is, too, in the motor traffic an evident desire not to slow down before the last moment. It is surely a scandal that on the common ways there should be undue apprehension in the minds of the weakest users of them. While the streets and roads are for all, of necessity the pedestrians, and the feeblest of these, should receive the supreme consideration. On October 31, 1951, in the town of Slough, west of London, the first pedestrian crossing in history was marked. The black and white striped crossings were dubbed "zebra crossings", and the Ministry of Transport had installed 1,000 experimental versions across the UK in 1949 during a "Pedestrian Safety Week". The exact source of the name "zebra crossing" cannot be confirmed with certainty, but it is believed that it came from the visual similarity of the crossing with the stripes on zebra fur. It is believed that the term "zebra crossing" was first used by British politician and military officer James Callaghan. According to Zegeer, Pedestrians have a right to cross roads safely and, therefore, planners and engineers have a professional responsibility to plan, design, and install safe crossing facilities. == Criteria ==

Pedestrian crossing warrants are guidelines for the appropriate pedestrian crossing type for a site's traffic conditions. There are several guidelines in use across the world, and guidance and practice differ between jurisdictions. An over-emphasis by traffic engineers on vehicular movement in these criteria is criticised for neglecting the safety of pedestrians. In some jurisdictions, the decision to mark a crossing is given a quantitative veneer through formulae such as PV2, a prescription developed in the United Kingdom in 1987 and later expanded to India and Iran. Under this prescription, the pedestrian traffic volume rate P and vehicle traffic volume rate V are both estimated during peak hours, and the product PV2 is used to determine which type of crossing, if any, should be installed. The Manual is criticised for enabling motorist-focused traffic engineers to avoid implementing street safety measures. Tactical urbanist groups implement guerrilla crosswalks by public nomination, especially at junctions where nominations for marked crossings via formal channels have been repeatedly ignored by city government, or where the government's stated timeline for marking a crossing is implausibly long. In Los Angeles, a low-intensity conflict between the government and the guerrilla groups frequently results in the removal of the guerrilla crosswalks, although a few are normalised; occasionally, city police have arrested guerrillas. == Types and design ==

Unmarked crossings , Australia , New Zealand|upright=.6 In some countries, including the US, "unmarked crosswalks" are presumed to occur at intersections even if a crossing is not marked, except at locations where pedestrian crossing is expressly prohibited. Pedestrian refuges are uncontrolled crossings with two dropped kerbs and a central traffic island, protected by kerbs. The island allows pedestrians to cross the road one direction of traffic at a time, which can be quicker and safer (they decrease pedestrian accidents by around 40%) than a lack of crossing. Additionally, they can narrow the road, slowing down vehicles and preventing them from overtaking. However, they may not afford pedestrians priority, meaning pedestrians may have a longer wait than a controlled crossing. They can also create pinch points, which can be dangerous for cyclists. Courtesy crossings are uncontrolled crossings with coloured surfacing or some other non-formal suggestion that pedestrians may cross. They aim to encourage concentrated pedestrian crossings and to encourage drivers to let pedestrians cross the roads out of courtesy, rather than obligation. The inclusion of stripes (e.g. in paving), the presence of narrowing and visual narrowings of the road positively affect courtesy. Marked crossings , Philippines The simplest marked crossings may just consist of some markings on the road surface. In the US these are known as "marked crosswalks". If the pedestrian has priority over vehicular traffic when using the crossing, then they have an incentive to use the crossing instead of crossing the road at other places. In some countries, pedestrians may not have priority, but may be committing an offence if they cross the road elsewhere, or "jaywalk". Special markings are often made on the road surface, both to direct pedestrians and to prevent motorists from stopping vehicles in the way of foot traffic. There are many varieties of signal and marking layouts around the world and even within single countries. In the United States, there are many inconsistencies, although the variations are usually minor. There are several distinct types in the United Kingdom, each with their own name. Pedestrian cross striping machines are special equipment professionally used to paint zebra lines on the intersections or other busy road sections. Because of the characteristics of zebra crossings, parallel stripes that are wide but not long, the striping machine is often a small hand-guided road marking machine, which can easily be made to change direction. There are differences between the engineering regulations in different countries. The marking shoe of a pedestrian cross striping machine, which determines marking lines' width, is much wider than on other marking machines. A smaller marking shoe with wheels may be used to perform the road striping. The section of road should be swept clean and kept dry. The painter first pulls a guiding line straight and fix the two ends on the ground. Then they spray or brush a primer layer on the asphalt or concrete surface. The thermoplastic paint in powder form is then melted into a molten liquid state for painting. Finally, the painter pulls or pushes the striping machine with the guide rod along the guiding line. As an alternative to thermoplastics, household paint or epoxy can be used to mark crosswalks. Signal-controlled crossings Some crossings have pedestrian traffic signals that allow pedestrians and road traffic to use the crossing alternately. On some traffic signals, pressing a call button is required to trigger the signal. Pedestrian scramble , Japan Some intersections display red lights to vehicles in all directions for a period of time. Known as a pedestrian scramble, this type of vehicle all-way stop allows pedestrians to cross safely in any direction, including diagonally. Multiple-stage crossings A pedestrian crossing at traffic signals may be single stage or multiple-stages (also known as multi-stage or two-stage). A single stage crossing is where a pedestrian can cross the intersection at once. A multi-stage crossing typically has a traffic 'island' and requires the pedestrian to wait for a second signal before proceeding. In Toronto, single-stage crossings are mandated unless such a crossing would have "capacity issues due to the longer cycle length required" and would not create safety issues. Multi-stage crossings are only permitted when there is a traffic island at the median. A variation on the bridge concept, often called a skyway or skywalk, is sometimes implemented in regions that experience inclement weather. Crosswalk shortening Pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of a street may be added when a street is very wide, as these crossings can be too long for some individuals to cross in one cycle. These pedestrian refuges may consist of building traffic islands in the middle of the road, extending an existing island or median strip to the crosswalk to provide a refuge, or simply cutting through the existing island or median strip where the median is already continuous. Artwork crossings Some crosswalks, known as colourful crossings, include unique designs, many of which take the form of artwork. These works of art may serve many different purposes, such as attracting tourism or catching drivers' attention. Cities and towns worldwide have held competitions to paint crosswalks, usually as a form of artwork. including a crosswalk in Montreal where the zebra stripes are shaped like bullets, as well as "conveyor belt" crosswalk in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. and Linda Powers painted two more crosswalks in 2016 following that year's competition. An artwork crossing was installed in late 2025 in the Cape Town CBD, the economic center of Cape Town, South Africa. Located on busy Strand Street - one of the CBD's main (and widest) streets - the two parallel crossings have been designed as African daisy shapes by Heather Moore and implemented by Mission for Inner City Cape Town. Their purpose is to improve visibility and safety for pedestrians. In New York City, a 2012 guerrilla installation marked the anniversary of September 11 with American-flag-themed crosswalks painted across SoHo, the Financial District and Williamsburg, Brooklyn. The crosswalks, featuring red and white stripes, white stars on blue, and the words “Live For Today 9/11,” were designed by Miami Ad School students as a memorial gesture "symbolizing unity and remembrance." In Tbilisi, Georgia, some Tbilisi Academy of Arts students and government officials jointly created a crossing that is designed to look like it is in 3D. A message on the white bars of the crosswalk reads, "for your safety." 3D crosswalk designs have also been installed in China, with a "floating zebra crossing" implemented in a village in Luoyuan County to boost tourism; and another multicolored crossing in Sichuan Province that serves the same purpose as the colored Changsha crosswalk. Colored crosswalks might have themes that reflect the immediate area. For instance, Chengdu, China had a red-and-white zebra crossing with hearts painted on it, reflecting its location near a junction of two rivers. campus, Germany|upright Sometimes, different cities around the world may have similar art concepts for their crosswalks. Rainbow flag-colored crosswalks, which are usually painted to show support for the locality's LGBT cultures, have been installed in San Francisco; Philadelphia;, Cape Town, and Tel Aviv. Warsaw; Raised crossings Raised crossings are a traffic calming measure that contains speed tables spanning the crossing. The crossings are demarcated with paint and/or have special paving materials. These crossings allow the pedestrian to cross at grade with the sidewalk and has been shown to reduce pedestrian crashes by 45% due to reduction of vehicular speeds and the prominence of the pedestrian in the driver's field of vision. ==Distinctions by region==

North America In the United States, crosswalks are sometimes marked with white stripes, though many municipalities have slightly different styles. The designs used vary widely between jurisdictions, and often vary even between a city and its county (or local equivalents). Marked crosswalks are usually placed at traffic intersections or crossroads, but are occasionally used at mid-block locations, which may include additional regulatory signage such as "PED XING" (for "pedestrian crossing"), flashing yellow beacons (also known as rectangular rapid-flashing beacons or RRFBs), stop or yield signs, or by actuated or automatic signals. Some more innovative crossing treatments include in-pavement flashers, yellow flashing warning lights installed in the roadway, or HAWK beacon. Crossing laws vary between different states and provinces and sometimes at the local level. All U.S. states require vehicles to yield to a pedestrian who has entered a marked crosswalk, and in most states crosswalks exist at all intersections meeting at approximately right angles, whether they are marked or not. At crossings controlled by signals, generally the poles at both ends of the crosswalk also have the pedestrian signal heads. For many years these bore white and Portland Orange legends, but pictograms of an "upraised hand" (symbolizing ) and a "walking person" (symbolizing ) have been required since 2009. Europe In Spain, the United Kingdom, Germany and other European countries, 90% of pedestrian fatalities occur outside of pedestrian crossings. The highest rate is in the UK, which has fewer crossings than neighbouring European countries. Continental Europe Nearly every country of continental Europe is party to (though has not necessarily ratified) the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals (1968), which says of pedestrian crossings: 'to mark pedestrian crossings, relatively broad stripes, parallel to the axis of the carriageway, should preferably be used'. This means that pedestrian crossing styles are quite uniform across the Continent. However, while the stripes are normally white, in Switzerland they are yellow. Furthermore, the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968) states that pedestrians should use pedestrian crossings when one is nearby (§6.c) and prohibits the overtaking of other vehicles approaching crossings, unless the driver would be able to stop for a pedestrian. The 1971 European supplement to that Convention re-iterates the former and outlaws the standing or parking of vehicles around pedestrian crossings. It also specifies signs and markings: the "pedestrian crossing sign" is on a blue or black ground, with a white or yellow triangle where the symbol is displayed in black or dark blue, and that the minimum width recommended for pedestrian crossings is 2.5 m (or 8-foot) on roads on which the speed limit is lower than 60 km/h (or 37 mph), and 4 m (or 13-foot) on roads with a higher or no speed limit. In France, it is not mandatory that crosswalks exist. However, if there is one less than 50 meters (55 yards) away, pedestrians are obliged to use it. In the east of Germany, including Berlin, the unique design for pedestrian lights are widely used. These signals originated in the former East Germany and have become an icon of the city and of ostalgie – nostalgia for East German life. A study has shown they are more effective than Western-style icons. United Kingdom , with the traditional – and mandatory – 'belisha' beacons . The United Kingdom's pedestrian crossings are quite distinct from the vast majority of Europe, and they use animal names to distinguish different types of crossing. These conventions have been adapted in some ex-Empire countries, such as Ireland, Hong Kong and Malta. 'Look right' and 'look left' markings are sometimes found in tourist areas, to remind pedestrians of the driving direction in the UK. Zebra crossings are similar to their Continental counterparts, with white stripe markings, they must have orange flashing globes, called 'belisha beacons'. They also normally have zig-zag markings to prevent overtaking and stopping of vehicles. There are a number of different types of signal-controlled crossing. The traditional pelican crossing is no longer permitted in the UK, because it has been replaced with more intelligent puffin crossings – which have crossing sensors and low-level pedestrian signals – and pedex crossings, which features pedestrian countdown timers; however, in Ireland, only pelican crossings are installed. Puffin crossings are rare. Australia Pictograms are standard on all traffic light controlled crossings. Like some other countries, a flashing red sequence is used prior to steady red to clear pedestrians. Moments after, in some instances, a flashing yellow sequence (for motorists) can begin indicating that the vehicles may proceed through the crossing if safe to do so; this is fairly uncommon, however. There are two distinctive types of crossings in Australia: marked foot crossings and pedestrian crossing (also called zebra crossings). Marked foot crossings consist on two parallel broken white lines indicating where pedestrians must cross with pedestrian lights facing pedestrians and traffic lights facing drivers. These crossings are located at intersections with signals and may also be located between intersections. On most Australian foot crossings, PB/5 Audio-Tactile Pedestrian Detector push buttons are provided to allow pedestrians to request the green walk (green symbol) display. On the other hand, zebra crossings are common in low traffic areas and their approaches may be marked by zigzag lines. When a pedestrian crossing is placed on a raised section of road they are known as wombat crossings and are usually accompanied by a 40km/h speed limit. ==Signals==

Pedestrian call buttons Pedestrian call buttons (also known as pedestrian push buttons or pedestrian beg buttons) are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian "walk" indication in locations where they function correctly. However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the "walk" indications. Reports suggest that many walk buttons in some areas, such as New York City and the United Kingdom, may actually be either placebo buttons or nonworking call buttons that used to function correctly. However, in instances of the latter case, such as New York City's, the buttons were simply deactivated when traffic signals were updated to automatically include pedestrian phases as part of every signal cycle. In such instances these buttons may be removed during future updates to the pedestrian signals. In the United Kingdom, pressing a button at a standalone pedestrian crossing that is unconnected to a junction will turn a traffic light red immediately, but this is not necessarily the case at a junction. Countdown timers Some pedestrian signals integrate a countdown timer, showing how many seconds are remaining for the clearing phase. In the United States, San Francisco was the first major city to install countdown signals to replace older pedestrian modules, doing so on a trial basis starting in March 2001. The United States MUTCD added a countdown signal as an optional feature to its 2003 edition; if included, the countdown digits would be Portland Orange, the same color as the "Upraised Hand" indication. The MUTCD's 2009 edition changed countdown timers to a mandatory feature on pedestrian signals at all signalized intersections with pedestrian clearance intervals ("flashing upraised hand" phases) longer than seven seconds. With the MUTCD guideline allotting at least one second to cross , this indicates that countdown timers are supposed to be installed on roads wider than . Some municipalities have found that there are instances where pedestrian countdown signals may be less effective than standard hand/man or ""/"" signals. New York City started studying the pedestrian timers in an inconclusive 2006 study but only started rolling out pedestrian timers on a large scale in 2011 after the conclusion of a second study, which found that pedestrian countdown timers were ineffective at shorter crosswalks. Additionally, a 2000 study of pedestrian countdown timers in Lake Buena Vista, Florida, at several intersections near Walt Disney World, found that pedestrians were more likely to cross the street during the pedestrian clearance interval (flashing upraised hand) if there is a timer present, compared to at intersections where there was no timer present. A study in Toronto found similar results to the Florida study, determining that countdown timers may actually cause more crashes than standard hand/person signals. However, other cities such as London found that countdown timers were effective, and New York City found that countdown signals worked mainly at longer crosswalks. India, Mexico, Taiwan, and the United Arab Emirates. In Mexico City, the walking person moves their feet during the countdown. In Lisbon, some signals have a "don't walk" indicator that dances; these "dancing person" signals, created by Daimler AG, were created to encourage pedestrians to wait for the "walk" indicator, with the result that 81% more pedestrians stopped and waited for the "walk" light compared to at crosswalks with conventional signals. Leading Pedestrian Interval In some areas, the signal timing technique of a Leading Pedestrian Interval (LPI) allows pedestrians exclusive access to a crosswalk, typically 3–7 seconds, before vehicular traffic is permitted. Depending on intersection volume and safety history, a normal right-turn-on-red (RTOR) might be explicitly prohibited during the LPI phase. LPI benefits include increased visibility and greater likelihood of vehicles yielding. LPI is among the tools being considered in the fatality-elimination toolkit of Vision Zero planners and advocates. An alternative to Leading Pedestrian Intervals is (temporally) protected pedestrian crossing phases, where turning vehicles are held at a red turn (filter) arrow signal during the walk (and optionally clearance) pedestrian interval, without blocking cars or transit vehicles proceeding ahead. Temporary signals In certain circumstances, there are needs to install temporary pedestrian crossing signals. The reasons may include redirecting traffic due to roadworks, closing of the permanent crossing signals due to repairs or upgrades, and establishing new pedestrian crossings for the duration of large public events. The temporary pedestrian crossings can be integrated into portable traffic signals that may be used during the roadworks, or it can be stand-alone just to stop vehicles to allow pedestrians to safely cross the road without directing vehicle movements. When using the temporary pedestrian crossings signals for roadworks, there should be consideration on signal cycle time. The pedestrian crossing cycles may add longer delay to the traffics which may require additional planning on road work traffic flows. Depending on the duration and the nature of the temporary signals, the equipment can be installed in different way. One way is to use the permanent traffic signals mounted temporary poles such as poles in concrete-filled barrels. Another way is to use portable pedestrian crossing signals. ==Enhancements for disabled people==

Pedestrian controlled crossings are sometimes provided with enhanced features to assist disabled people. Tactile paving Tactile surfacing patterns (or tactile pavings) may be laid flush within the adjacent footways (US: sidewalks), so that visually impaired pedestrians can locate the control box and cone device and know when they have reached the other side. In Britain, different colours of tactile paving indicate different types of crossings; yellow (referred to as buff coloured) is used at non-controlled (no signals) crossings, and red is used at controlled (signalised) locations. Audible signals Crosswalks have adaptations, mainly for people with visual impairments, through the addition of accessible pedestrian signals (APS) that may include speakers at the pushbutton, or under the signal display, for each crossing location. These types of signals have been shown to reduce conflicts between pedestrians and vehicles. However, without other indications such as tactile pavings or cones, these APS units may be hard for visually impaired people to locate. In the United States, the standards in the 2009 MUTCD require APS units to have a pushbutton locator tone, audible and vibrotactile walk indications, a tactile arrow aligned with the direction of travel on the crosswalk, and to adjust their volume in response to ambient sound. The pushbutton locator tone is a beep or tick, repeating at once per second, to allow people who are blind to find the device. Otherwise, the walk indication may be a "percussive tone", which usually consists of repeated, rapid sounds that can be clearly heard from the opposite curb and can oscillate between high and low volumes. New York City has APS at 131 intersections , with 75 more intersections to be equipped every year after that. APS in other countries may consist of a short recorded message, as in Scotland, Hong Kong, Singapore and some parts of Canada (moderate to large urban centres). In Japan, various electronic melodies are played, often of traditional melancholic folk songs such as "Tōryanse" or "Sakura". In Croatia, Denmark Israel, Sweden, and Hong Kong, beeps (or clicks) with long intervals in-between signifying "don't walk" mode and beeps with very short intervals signifying "walk" mode; however, the standards differ by the implementing country (for example, the intervals between clicks in Hong Kong, for both "walk" mode and "don't walk" mode, are shorter than the corresponding intervals in Sweden). Relief symbols On some pushbuttons especially in Austria and Germany there is a symbolic relief showing the crossing situation for the visually impaired, so they can get an overview of the crossing. The relief is read from the bottom up. It consists of different modules, which are put together according to the crosswalk. Each pedestrian crossing begins with the start symbol, consisting of an arrow and a broad line representing the curb. Subsequently, different modules for traffic lanes and islands follow. The relief is completed with a broad line. Modules for traffic lanes consist of a dash in the middle and a symbol for the kind of lane right or left of the dash, depending on the direction from which the traffic crosses the crossing. If a crossing is possible from both directions, a symbol is located on both sides. If the pedestrian crossing is a zebra crossing, the middle line is dashed. A traffic light secured crossing has a solid line. A cycle path is represented by two points next to each other, a vehicle lane by a rectangle and tram rails by two lines lying one above the other. Islands are represented as a rectangle, which has semicircles on the right and left side. If there is a pushbutton for pedestrians on the island, there is a dot in the middle of the rectangle. If the pedestrian walkway divides on an island, the rectangle may be open on the right or left side. The Australian PB/5 crosswalk button has an embossed arrow to indicate the direction of the crossing (intended to function in conjunction with tactile paving. It is unclear what became of this system. In Singapore, a system called Green Man+ has been installed. This system enables a longer green time for elderly pedestrians (over 60 years old) or people with a disability. Green duration is extended by 3 to 13 seconds depending on the crossing width. Identification cards are required to be tapped onto a reader mounted above signal push buttons. Green light duration is otherwise fixed and pre-determined. ==Lighting==

There are two types of crosswalk lights: those that illuminate the whole crosswalk area, and warning lights. Both these lighting systems encourage oncoming traffic to yield for pedestrians only if necessary. The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America currently provides engineering design standards for highway lighting. In the US, in conventional intersections, area lighting is typically provided by pole-mounted luminaires. These systems illuminate the crosswalk as well as surrounding areas, and do not always provide enough contrast between the pedestrian and his or her background. There have been many efforts to create lighting scenarios that offer better nighttime illumination in crosswalks. Some innovative concepts include: Illuminating lights • Bollard posts containing linear light sources inside. These posts have been shown to sufficiently illuminate the pedestrian but not the background, consequently increasing contrast and improving pedestrian visibility and detection. Although this method shows promise in being incorporated into crosswalk lighting standards, more studies need to be done. • Festooned strings of light over the top of the crosswalk. Warning lights To warn the oncoming traffic, these warning lights usually only rapidly flash when a pedestrian presses a button to use the crosswalk. • In-pavement lighting oriented to face oncoming traffic (Embedded pavement flashing-light system). • In-pavement, flashing warning lights oriented upwards (especially visible to children, the short-statured, and smombies) • Pole-mounted, flashing warning lights (mounted similar to a traffic signal). • Pedestrian warning signs enhanced with LED lights either within the sign face or underneath it. In areas with heavy snowfall, using in-pavement lighting can be problematic, since snow can obscure the lights, and snowplows can damage them. ==Railway pedestrian crossings==

, Finland In Finland, fences in the footpath approaching the crossing force pedestrians and bicycles to slow down to navigate a zigzag path, which also tends to force that user to look out for the train. Pedestrian crossings across railways may be arranged differently elsewhere, such as in New South Wales, where they consist of: • a barrier which closes when a train approaches; • a "Red Man" light; no light when no train approaching • an alarm In France, when a train is approaching, a red person is shown with the word STOP flashing in red (R25 signal). When a footpath crosses a railway in the United Kingdom, there will most often be gates or stiles protecting the crossing from wildlife and livestock. In situations where there is little visibility along the railway, or the footpath is especially busy, there will also be a small set of lights with an explanatory sign. When a train approaches, the signal light will change to red and an alarm will sound until the train has cleared the crossing. ==Safety==

The safety of unsignalled pedestrian or zebra crossings is somewhat contested in traffic engineering circles. Research undertaken in New Zealand showed that a zebra crossing without other safety features on average increases pedestrian crashes by 28% compared to a location without crossings. However, if combined with (placed on top of) a speed table, zebra crossings were found to reduce pedestrian crashes by 80%. A five-year U.S. study of 1,000 marked crosswalks and 1,000 unmarked comparison sites found that on most roads, the difference in safety performance of marked and unmarked crossings is not statistically significant, unless additional safety features are used. On multilane roads carrying over 12,000 vehicles per day, a marked crosswalk is likely to have worse safety performance than an otherwise similar unmarked location, unless safety features such as raised median refuges or pedestrian beacons are also installed. Traffic accidents are reduced when intersections are daylighted, i.e. visibility increased such as by removing adjacent parked cars. Smart pedestrian crossings, also known as active signage systems, utilize automated flashing lights triggered by infrared and motion sensors to warn drivers of pedestrians ahead. A 2021 study found that such systems reduced average vehicle speeds by approximately 2.6 km/h on arterial roads and 3.5 km/h on collector roads. The same study documented a 77.4% increase in driver yielding rates and a 25.2% decrease in pedestrian waiting times. Notably, there were also measurable reductions in the probability of fatal or serious injuries—up to 9.4% on arterial roads immediately after installation and up to 31.7% on collector roads after one year. ==See also==